The Incomplete Lojban Language

Chrestomathy included

John Woldemar Cowan

An unofficial publication, community edition (not by the LLG)

Version geklojban-1.2.13, Generated 2021-05-31


Table of Contents

1. Lojban as we mangle it in Lojbanistan: about this book
1.1. What is Lojban?
1.2. What is this book?
1.3. What are the typographical conventions of this book?
1.4. Disclaimers
1.5. Acknowledgements and credits
1.6. Informal bibliography
1.7. Captions to pictures
1.8. Boring legalities
2. A quick tour of Lojban grammar, with diagrams
2.1. The concept of the bridi
2.2. Pronunciation
2.3. Words that can act as sumti
2.4. Some words used to indicate selbri relations
2.5. Some simple Lojban bridi
2.6. Variant bridi structure
2.7. Varying the order of sumti
2.8. The basic structure of longer utterances
2.9. tanru
2.10. Description sumti
2.11. Examples of brivla
2.12. The sumti di'u and la'e di'u
2.13. Possession
2.14. Vocatives and commands
2.15. Questions
2.16. Indicators
2.17. Tenses
2.18. Lojban grammatical terms
3. The hills are alive with the sounds of Lojban
3.1. Orthography
3.2. Basic phonetics
3.3. The special Lojban characters
3.4. Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
3.5. Vowel pairs
3.6. Consonant clusters
3.7. Initial consonant pairs
3.8. Buffering of consonant clusters
3.9. Syllabication and stress
3.10. IPA for English speakers
3.11. English analogues for Lojban diphthongs
3.12. Oddball orthographies
4. The shape of words to come: Lojban morphology
4.1. Introductory
4.2. cmavo
4.3. brivla
4.4. gismu
4.5. lujvo
4.6. rafsi
4.7. fu'ivla
4.8. cmevla
4.9. Rules for inserting pauses
4.10. Considerations for making lujvo
4.11. The lujvo-making algorithm
4.12. The lujvo scoring algorithm
4.13. lujvo-making examples
4.14. The gismu creation algorithm
4.15. Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
4.16. rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal
5. Pretty little girls' school: the structure of Lojban selbri
5.1. Lojban content words: brivla
5.2. Simple tanru
5.3. Three-part tanru grouping with bo
5.4. Complex tanru grouping
5.5. Complex tanru with ke and ke'e
5.6. Logical connection within tanru
5.7. Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
5.8. Inversion of tanru: co
5.9. Other kinds of simple selbri
5.10. selbri based on sumti: me
5.11. Conversion of simple selbri
5.12. Scalar negation of selbri
5.13. Tenses and bridi negation
5.14. Some types of asymmetrical tanru
5.15. Some types of symmetrical tanru
5.16. Pretty little girls' school : forty ways to say it
6. To speak of many things: the Lojban sumti
6.1. The five kinds of simple sumti
6.2. The three basic description types
6.3. Individuals and masses
6.4. Masses and sets
6.5. Descriptors for typical objects
6.6. Quantified sumti
6.7. Quantified descriptions
6.8. Indefinite descriptions
6.9. sumti-based descriptions
6.10. sumti qualifiers
6.11. The syntax of vocative phrases
6.12. Lojban names
6.13. Pro-sumti summary
6.14. Quotation summary
6.15. Number summary
7. Brevity is the soul of language: pro-sumti and pro-bridi
7.1. What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
7.2. Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
7.3. Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
7.4. Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
7.5. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
7.6. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
7.7. Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
7.8. Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
7.9. sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
7.10. Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
7.11. Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u
7.12. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series
7.13. Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
7.14. The identity predicate: du
7.15. lujvo based on pro-sumti
7.16. KOhA cmavo by series
7.17. GOhA and other pro-bridi by series
7.18. Other cmavo discussed in this chapter
8. Relative clauses, which make sumti even more complicated
8.1. What are you pointing at?
8.2. Incidental relative clauses
8.3. Relative phrases
8.4. Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
8.5. Non-veridical relative clauses: voi
8.6. Relative clauses and descriptors
8.7. Possessive sumti
8.8. Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
8.9. Relative clauses in vocative phrases
8.10. Relative clauses within relative clauses
8.11. Index of relative clause cmavo
9. To Boston via the toad go I, with an excursion into the land of modals
9.1. Introductory
9.2. Standard bridi form: cu
9.3. Tagging places: FA
9.4. Conversion: SE
9.5. Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
9.6. Modal tags: BAI
9.7. Modal sentence connection: the causals
9.8. Other modal connections
9.9. Modal selbri
9.10. Modal relative phrases; Comparison
9.11. Mixed modal connection
9.12. Modal conversion: JAI
9.13. Modal negation
9.14. Sticky modals
9.15. Logical and non-logical connection of modals
9.16. CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms
9.17. Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
10. Imaginary journeys: the Lojban space/time tense system
10.1. Introductory
10.2. Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
10.3. Compound spatial tenses
10.4. Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
10.5. Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
10.6. Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
10.7. Dimensionality: VIhA
10.8. Movement in space: MOhI
10.9. Interval properties: TAhE and roi
10.10. Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
10.11. Space interval modifiers: FEhE
10.12. Tenses as sumtcita
10.13. Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
10.14. Story time
10.15. Tenses in subordinate bridi
10.16. Tense relations between sentences
10.17. Tensed logical connectives
10.18. Tense negation
10.19. Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
10.20. Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
10.21. Sub-events
10.22. Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
10.23. Tenses versus modals
10.24. Tense questions: cu'e
10.25. Explicit magnitudes
10.26. Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)
10.27. Summary of tense selma'o
10.28. List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
11. Events, qualities, quantities, and other vague words: on Lojban abstraction
11.1. The syntax of abstraction
11.2. Event abstraction
11.3. Types of event abstractions
11.4. Property abstractions
11.5. Amount abstractions
11.6. Truth-value abstraction: jei
11.7. Predication/sentence abstraction
11.8. Indirect questions
11.9. Minor abstraction types
11.10. Lojban sumti raising
11.11. Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
11.12. Abstractor connection
11.13. Table of abstractors
12. Dog house and white house: determining lujvo place structures
12.1. Why have lujvo?
12.2. The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
12.3. The meaning of lujvo
12.4. Selecting places
12.5. Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
12.6. Dependent places
12.7. Ordering lujvo places.
12.8. lujvo with more than two parts.
12.9. Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
12.10. Eliding SE rafsi from tertau
12.11. Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
12.12. Abstract lujvo
12.13. Implicit-abstraction lujvo
12.14. Anomalous lujvo
12.15. Comparatives and superlatives
12.16. Notes on gismu place structures
13. Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and emotional indicators
13.1. What are attitudinal indicators?
13.2. Pure emotion indicators
13.3. Propositional attitude indicators
13.4. Attitudes as scales
13.5. The space of emotions
13.6. Emotional categories
13.7. Attitudinal modifiers
13.8. Compound indicators
13.9. The uses of indicators
13.10. Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
13.11. Evidentials
13.12. Discursives
13.13. Miscellaneous indicators
13.14. Vocative scales
13.15. A sample dialogue
13.16. Tentative conclusion
14. If wishes were horses: the Lojban connective system
14.1. Logical connection and truth tables
14.2. The four basic vowels
14.3. The six types of logical connectives
14.4. Logical connection of bridi
14.5. Forethought bridi connection
14.6. sumti connection
14.7. More than two propositions
14.8. Grouping of afterthought connectives
14.9. Compound bridi
14.10. Multiple compound bridi
14.11. Termset logical connection
14.12. Logical connection within tanru
14.13. Truth questions and connective questions
14.14. Non-logical connectives
14.15. More about non-logical connectives
14.16. Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
14.17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
14.18. Tenses, modals, and logical connection
14.19. Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
14.20. Constructs and appropriate connectives
14.21. Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
14.22. Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives
14.23. Locations of other tables
15. No problems: on Lojban negation
15.1. Introductory
15.2. bridi negation
15.3. Scalar negation
15.4. selbri and tanru negation
15.5. Expressing scales in selbri negation
15.6. sumti negation
15.7. Negation of minor grammatical constructs
15.8. Truth questions
15.9. Affirmations
15.10. Metalinguistic negation forms
15.11. Summary – are all possible questions about negation now answered?
16. Who did you pass on the road? Nobody: Lojban and logic
16.1. What's wrong with this picture?
16.2. Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
16.3. Universal claims
16.4. Restricted claims: da poi
16.5. Dropping the prenex
16.6. Variables with generalized quantifiers
16.7. Grouping of quantifiers
16.8. The problem of any
16.9. Negation boundaries
16.10. bridi negation and logical connectives
16.11. Using naku outside a prenex
16.12. Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
16.13. selbri variables
16.14. A few notes on variables
16.15. Conclusion
17. As easy as A-B-C? The Lojban letteral system and its uses
17.1. What's a letteral, anyway?
17.2. A to Z in Lojban, plus one
17.3. Upper and lower cases
17.4. The universal bu
17.5. Alien alphabets
17.6. Accent marks and compound lerfu words
17.7. Punctuation marks
17.8. What about Chinese characters?
17.9. lerfu words as pro-sumti
17.10. References to lerfu
17.11. Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
17.12. Acronyms
17.13. Computerized character codes
17.14. List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo
17.15. Proposed lerfu words – introduction
17.16. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet
17.17. Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet
17.18. Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
17.19. Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
17.20. Proposed lerfu words for radio communication
18. lojbau mekso: mathematical expressions in Lojban
18.1. Introductory
18.2. Lojban numbers
18.3. Signs and numerical punctuation
18.4. Special numbers
18.5. Simple infix expressions and equations
18.6. Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)
18.7. Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
18.8. Indefinite numbers
18.9. Approximation and inexact numbers
18.10. Non-decimal and compound bases
18.11. Special mekso selbri
18.12. Number questions
18.13. Subscripts
18.14. Infix operators revisited
18.15. Vectors and matrices
18.16. Reverse Polish notation
18.17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
18.18. Using Lojban resources within mekso
18.19. Other uses of mekso
18.20. Explicit operator precedence
18.21. Miscellany
18.22. Four score and seven: a mekso problem
18.23. mekso selma'o summary
18.24. Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures
18.25. Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers
18.26. Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures
19. Putting it all together: notes on the structure of Lojban texts
19.1. Introductory
19.2. Sentences: I
19.3. Paragraphs: NIhO
19.4. Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
19.5. Questions and answers
19.6. Subscripts: XI
19.7. Utterance ordinals: MAI
19.8. Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO
19.9. Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU
19.10. More on quotations: ZO, ZOI
19.11. Contrastive emphasis: BAhE
19.12. Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
19.13. Erasure: SI, SA, SU
19.14. Hesitation: Y
19.15. No more to say: FAhO
19.16. List of cmavo interactions
19.17. List of elidable terminators
20. A catalogue of selma'o
20.1. A catalogue of selma'o
21. Formal grammars
21.1. EBNF grammar of Lojban
Chrestomathy
1. The North Wind and the Sun
2. Terry, the Tiger, visits the big city
3. There will come soft rains
4. Alice in Wonderland
5. Kubla Khan
Lojban Words Glossary
Lojban Words Index
General Index

Chapter 1. Lojban as we mangle it in Lojbanistan: about this book

The picture for chapter 1

1.1. What is Lojban?

Lojban (pronounced LOZH-bahn) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were called Loglan by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the article “Loglan” , published in Scientific American , June, 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in science fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's novel The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress) and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four decades by dozens of workers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The Logical Language Group (who are the publishers of this book).

There are thousands of artificial languages (of which Esperanto is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban has been engineered to make it unique in several ways. The following are the main features of Lojban:

  • Lojban is designed to be used by people in communication with each other, and possibly in the future with computers.

  • Lojban is designed to be neutral between cultures.

  • Lojban grammar is based on the principles of predicate logic.

  • Lojban has an unambiguous yet flexible grammar.

  • Lojban has phonetic spelling, and unambiguously resolves its sounds into words.

  • Lojban is simple compared to natural languages; it is easy to learn.

  • Lojban's 1300 root words can be easily combined to form a vocabulary of millions of words.

  • Lojban is regular; the rules of the language are without exceptions.

  • Lojban attempts to remove restrictions on creative and clear thought and communication.

  • Lojban has a variety of uses, ranging from the creative to the scientific, from the theoretical to the practical.

  • Lojban has been demonstrated in translation and in original works of prose and poetry.

1.2. What is this book?

This book is what is called a reference grammar. It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The word discover is used advisedly; Lojban was not invented by any one person or committee. Often, grammatical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to prove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time.

By intention, this book is complete in description but not in explanation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given in Chapter 21), there is a bit of explanation and an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. In essence, Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of the language, Chapter 21 gives the formal structure of the language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even correcting) the explanations in this book will become available.

Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the language that will not even be considered until five years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form of new vocabulary – Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, as Chapter 12 explains – and through the irregular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling by language-meisters.

It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as possible.

Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title of Chapter 1 (which you are now reading), for example, is an allusion to the book English As We Speak It In Ireland , by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiberno-English. Lojbanistan is both an imaginary country where Lojban is the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speakers, scattered over the world. Why mangle ? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy.

1.3. What are the typographical conventions of this book?

Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.

The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:

Example 1.1. 

mi klama le zarci
I go-to that-which-I-describe-as-a store.

I go to the store.


will become wearisomely familiar before Chapter 21 is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language.

It is useful to talk further about Example 1.1 for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of these is in Lojban (in italics), the second in a word-by-word literal translation of the Lojban into English (in boldface), and the third in colloquial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called the literal translation and the colloquial translation respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meaning.

Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest. In Chapter 3 , square brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.

A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All of these are explained in Chapter 2 , except for a few used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapters.

1.4. Disclaimers

It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intended to give offense.

When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here.

1.5. Acknowledgements and credits

Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authorial I , certain chapters were first written by others and then heavily edited by me to fit into this book.

In particular: Chapter 2 is a fusion of originally separate documents, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChevalier; Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton; Chapter 12 was originally written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end of Chapter 13 was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChevalier; Chapter 15 and parts of Chapter 16 were originally by Bob LeChevalier. The BNF grammar, which is also in Chapter 21 , was originally written by me, then rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again.

The research into natural languages from which parts of Chapter 5 draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.

The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture appearing in Chapter 4 , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.

The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier.

I would like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known as pc), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.

Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving the manskapi dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three lujvo classes.

Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.

1.6. Informal bibliography

The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book is one of the products, is Loglan 1: A Logical Language by James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.). The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him.

The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the American philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especially Word and Object (1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban.

The theory of negation expounded in Chapter 15 is derived from a reading of Laurence Horn's work A Natural History of Negation.

Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way responsible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works.

Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exist.

1.7. Captions to pictures

The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has no caption, (none) is specified instead.

Chapter 1

coi .lojban.

Greetings, O Lojban!

coi rodo

Greetings, all-of you

Chapter 2

(none)

Chapter 3

.i .ai .i .ai .o

[a sequence of arbitrary Lojban words]

Chapter 4

jbobliku

Lojbanic-blocks

Chapter 5

(none)

Chapter 6
lei re nanmu cu bevri le re nanmu
The-mass-of two men carry the two men

Two men (jointly) carry two men (both of them).

Chapter 7
ma drani danfu
[What-sumti] is-the-correct type-of-answer?
.i di'e
The-next-sentence.
.i di'u .i dei
The-previous-sentence. This-sentence.
.i ri .i do'i
The-previous-sentence. An-unspecified-utterance.
Chapter 8
ko viska re prenu poi bruna la .santas.
[You!] see two persons who-are brothers-of that-named Santa.
Chapter 9

(none)

Chapter 10
za'o klama
[superfective] come/go

Something goes (or comes) for too long.

Chapter 11
le si'o kunti
The concept-of emptiness
Chapter 12

(none)

Chapter 13
.oi ro'i ro'a ro'o
[Pain!] [emotional] [social] [physical]
Chapter 14

(none)

Chapter 15
mi na'e lumci le karce
I other-than wash the car

I didn't wash the car.

Chapter 16
drata mupli pe'u .djan.
another example [please] John

Another example, John, please!

Chapter 17
zai xanlerfu bu ly. .obu .jy by. .abu ny.
[Shift] hand-letters l o j b a n

"Lojban" in a manual alphabet

Chapter 18
no no
0 0
Chapter 19

(none)

Chapter 20

(none)

Chapter 21

(none)

1.8. Boring legalities

Copyright © 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Chapter 2. A quick tour of Lojban grammar, with diagrams

The picture for chapter 2

2.1. The concept of the bridi

This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is a quick tour of the material later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.

Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:

Example 2.1. 

John is the father of Sam.


Example 2.2. 

John hits Sam.


Example 2.3. 

John is taller than Sam.


These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in English, we use the noun father to describe a static relationship in Example 2.1, the verb hits to describe an active relationship in Example 2.2, and the adjective taller to describe an attributive relationship in Example 2.3. In Lojban we make no such grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent the relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called a predication; in Lojban it is called a bridi, and the central part of speech is the selbri. Logicians refer to the things thus related as arguments, while Lojbanists call them sumti. These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of the book.

bridi (predication) ______________|__________________ | | John is the father of Sam |____| |______________| |___| | | | sumti selbri (predicate) sumti (argument)

In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. In English, for example, give has three places: the donor, the recipient and the gift. For example:

Example 2.4. 

John gives Sam the book.


and

Example 2.5. 

Sam gives John the book.


mean two different things because the relative positions of John and Sam have been switched. Further,

Example 2.6. 

The book gives John Sam.


seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled by unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed by give has not changed.

In Lojban, each selbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as its place structure. The simplest kind of selbri consists of a single root word, called a gismu, and the definition in a dictionary gives the place structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence, after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to fill in the sumti places.

This book uses the Lojban terms bridi, sumti, and selbri, because it is best to come to understand them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.

The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use boldface (as well as the usual italics) for selbri, to help you to tell them apart.

2.2. Pronunciation

Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given in Chapter 3, but what follows will keep the reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter.

Lojban has six recognized vowels: a, e, i, o, u and y. The first five are roughly pronounced as a as in father, e as in let, i as in machine, o as in dome and u as in flute. y is pronounced as the sound called schwa, that is, as the unstressed a as in about or around.

Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less as their counterparts are in English: b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r, t, v and z. The letter c, on the other hand is pronounced as the sh in hush, while j is its voiced counterpart, the sound of the s in pleasure. g is always pronounced as it is in gift, never as in giant. s is as in sell, never as in rose. The sound of x is not found in English in normal words. It is found as ch in Scottish loch, as j in Spanish junta, and as ch in German Bach; it also appears in the English interjection yecchh!. It gets easier to say as you practice it. The letter r can be trilled, but doesn't have to be.

The Lojban diphthongs ai, ei, oi, and au are pronounced much as in the English words sigh, say, boy, and how. Other Lojban diphthongs begin with an i pronounced like English y (for example, io is pronounced yo) or else with a u pronounced like English w (for example, ua is pronounced wa).

Lojban also has three semi-letters; the period, the comma and the apostrophe. The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like the English letter h. Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the beginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is only found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, and is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is not used in this chapter.

Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel is y, which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that syllable is not stressed.

All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no silent letters.

2.3. Words that can act as sumti

Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be found in Section 7.16.

mi

I/me, we/us

do

you

ti

this, these

ta

that, those

tu

that far away, those far away

zo'e

unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant or obvious)

Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter.

The cmavo ti, ta, and tu refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.

Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with the word la:

la .meris. the one/ones named Mary
la .djan. the one/ones named John

Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojban names: see Section 6.12 for more information.

2.4. Some words used to indicate selbri relations

Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in this chapter:

vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price)
tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4
sutra x1 (agent) is fast at doing x2 (action)
blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green
melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3
cutci x1 is a shoe/boot for x2 (foot) made of x3 (material)
bajra x1 runs on x2 (surface) using x3 (limbs) in manner x4 (gait)
klama x1 goes/comes to x2 (destination) from x3 (origin point) via x4 (route) using x5 (means of transportation)
pluka x1 pleases/is pleasing to x2 (experiencer) under conditions x3
gerku x1 is a dog of breed x2
kurji x1 takes care of x2
kanro x1 is healthy by standard x2
stali x1 stays/remains with x2
zarci x1 is a market/store/shop selling x2 (products) operated by x3 (storekeeper)

Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as x1, x2, x3, x4, and x5.

Like the table in Section 2.3, this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words that aren't in the dictionary. Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language. Chapter 4 explains how to make new words, and Chapter 12 explains how to give them appropriate meanings.

2.5. Some simple Lojban bridi

Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismu tavla is

Example 2.7. 

x1 talks to x2 about x3 in language x4


where the x es with following numbers represent the various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. For example:

Example 2.8. 

John talks to Sam about engineering in Lojban.


has John in the x1 place, Sam in the x2 place, engineering in the x3 place, and Lojban in the x4 place, and could be paraphrased:

Example 2.9. 

Talking is going on, with speaker John and listener Sam and subject matter engineering and language Lojban.


The Lojban bridi corresponding to Example 2.7 will have the form

Example 2.10. 

x1

[cu]

tavla

x2

x3

x4


The word cu serves as a separator between any preceding sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples.

Example 2.11. 

mi

tavla

do

zo'e

zo'e

I talk to you about something in some language.


Example 2.12. 

do

tavla

mi

ta

zo'e

You talk to me about that thing in a language.


Example 2.13. 

mi

tavla

zo'e

tu

ly.

I talk to someone about that thing yonder in language L.


(In Example 2.13 the word ly. is a so-called letteral for the Lojban letter l and refers to something labelled l, most likely the language Lojban as its first letter is l).

When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavo zo'e at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a process called ellipsis. Example 2.11 and Example 2.12 may be expressed thus:

Example 2.14. 

mi

tavla

do

I talk to you (about something in some language).


Example 2.15. 

do

tavla

mi

ta

You talk to me about that thing (in some language).


Note that Example 2.13 is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as the zo'e in it is not at the end of the bridi.

2.6. Variant bridi structure

Consider the sentence

Example 2.16. 

mi

[cu]

vecnu

ti

ta

zo'e

seller-x1

-

sells

goods-sold-x2

buyer-x3

price-x4

I

-

sell

this

to that

for some price.

I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers.

(the price is obvious or unimportant)


Example 2.16 has one sumti (the x1) before the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the selbri, without changing the order of sumti:

Example 2.17. 

mi

ti

[cu]

vecnu

ta

seller-x1

goods-sold-x2

-

sells

buyer-x3

I

this

-

sell

to that.

(translates as stilted or poetic English)

I this thing do sell to that buyer.


Example 2.18. 

mi

ti

ta

[cu]

vecnu

seller-x1

goods-sold-x2

buyer-x3

-

sells

I

this

to that

-

sell

(translates as stilted or poetic English)

I this thing to that buyer do sell.


Example 2.16 through Example 2.18 mean the same thing. Usually, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for emphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.)

If there are no sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is equivalent to zo'e; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2.

Example 2.19. 

ta

[cu]

melbi

object/idea-x1

-

is-beautiful

(to someone by some standard)

That/Those

-

is/are beautiful.

That is beautiful.

Those are beautiful.


when the x1 is omitted, becomes:

Example 2.20. 

melbi

unspecified-x1

is-beautiful

to someone by some standard

Beautiful!

It's beautiful!


Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonly understood English observatives include Smoke! upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, or Car! to a person crossing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear before the selbri.

The word cu does not occur in an observative; cu is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate for cu to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri, cu is not permitted. Short words like cu which serve grammatical functions are called cmavo in Lojban.

2.7. Varying the order of sumti

For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavo se, when placed before the last word of the selbri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So

Example 2.21. 

mi

tavla

do

ti

I talk to you about this.


has the same meaning as

Example 2.22. 

do

se tavla

mi

ti

You are talked to by me about this.


The cmavo te, when used in the same location, switches the meanings of the first and the third sumti places.

Example 2.23. 

mi

tavla

do

ti

I talk to you about this.


has the same meaning as

Example 2.24. 

ti

te tavla

do

mi

This is talked about to you by me.


Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the second sumti has remained in the second place.

The cmavo ve and xe switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of places are known as conversions, and the se, te, ve, and xe cmavo are said to convert the selbri.

More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for complex manipulation of the sumti places. See Section 9.4 for details.

The effect is similar to what in English is called the passive voice. In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such as le selbri [ku] (see Section 2.10).

2.8. The basic structure of longer utterances

People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the cmavo ni'o and .i. These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence.

The cmavo ni'o separates paragraphs (covering different topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text may be indicated by multiple ni'o s, with perhaps ni'oni'oni'o used to indicate a chapter, ni'oni'o to indicate a section, and a single ni'o to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragraph.

The cmavo .i separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the context of the utterance. (The cmavo xu, discussed in Section 2.15, is one such word – it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the .i even though she/he may be continuing on the same topic.

It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say the .i before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translation for .i is the and used in run-on sentences when people are talking informally: I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ....

2.9. tanru

When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are called tanru. For example,

Example 2.25. 

sutra tavla


has the place structure

Example 2.26. 

x1 is a fast type-of talker to x2 about x3 in language x4

x1 talks fast to x2 about x3 in language x4


When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example

Example 2.27. 

sutra tavla cutci


has the place structure

Example 2.28. 

s1 is a fast-talker type of shoe worn by s2 of material s3


That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.

Note especially the use of type-of as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:

Example 2.29. 

bajra cutci
runner shoe

most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instances as shoes that run (by themselves?). In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus

Example 2.30. 

sutra tavla
fast talker

would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the English idiom, and a

Example 2.31. 

jikca toldi
social butterfly

must always be a moth or a butterfly.

The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of klama:

Example 2.32. 

mi

[cu]

sutra klama

la meris.

I

-

quickly-go

to Mary.


With the conversion se klama as the final component of the tanru, the place structure of the entire selbri is that of se klama: the x1 place is the destination, and the x2 place is the one who goes:

Example 2.33. 

mi

[cu]

sutra

se klama

la meris.

I

-

quickly

am-gone-to

by Mary.


The following example shows that there is more to conversion than merely switching places, though:

Example 2.34. 

la tam.

[cu]

melbi tavla

la meris.

Tom

-

beautifully-talks

to Mary.

Tom

-

is a beautiful-talker

to Mary.


has the place structure of tavla, but note the two distinct interpretations.

Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:

Example 2.35. 

la meris.

[cu]

melbi se tavla

la tam.

Mary

-

is beautifully-talked-to

by Tom.

Mary

-

is a beautiful-audience

for Tom.


and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of possible interpretations.

Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying term is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings:

Example 2.36. 

la tam.

[cu]

tavla melbi

la meris.

Tom

-

is talkerly-beautiful

to Mary.


Example 2.37. 

la tam.

[cu]

se tavla melbi

la meris.

Tom

-

is audiencely-beautiful

to Mary.


and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the observer of beauty.

2.10. Description sumti

Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a talker other than mi. What I want to talk about would naturally fit into the first place of tavla. Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called a description sumti. The description sumti le tavla ku means the talker, and may be used wherever any sumti may be used.

For example,

Example 2.38. 

mi

tavla

do

le tavla

[ku]


means the same as

Example 2.39. 

I talk to you about the talker


where the talker is presumably someone other than me, though not necessarily.

Similarly le sutra tavla ku is the fast talker, and le sutra te tavla ku is the fast subject of talk or the subject of fast talk. Which of these related meanings is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used. The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be assumed by a listener to be the intended one.

In many cases the word ku may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so:

Example 2.40. 

mi

tavla

do

le tavla

I

talk-to

you

about-the talker


means exactly the same thing as Example 2.38.

There is a problem when we want to say The fast one is talking. The obvious translation le sutra tavla turns out to mean the fast talker, and has no selbri at all. To solve this problem we can use the word cu, which so far has always been optional, in front of the selbri.

The word cu has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo like se or te. Thus:

Example 2.41. 

le sutra tavla

The fast talker


Example 2.42. 

le sutra

cu

tavla

The fast one

-

is talking.


Example 2.43. 

le sutra se tavla

The fast talked-to one


Example 2.44. 

le sutra

cu

se tavla

The fast one

-

is talked to.


Consider the following more complex example, with two description sumti.

Example 2.45. 

mi

[cu]

tavla

le vecnu

[ku]

le blari'o

[ku]

I

-

talk-to

the seller

-

about the blue-green-thing.

-


The sumti le vecnu contains the selbri vecnu, which has the seller in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to describe a particular seller that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using le to mark blari'o, a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-green.

It is safe to omit both occurrences of ku in Example 2.45, and it is also safe to omit the cu.

2.11. Examples of brivla

The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may by itself express a selbri relation is called a brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu or tanru built from gismu.

gismu:

Example 2.46. 

mi

[cu]

klama

ti

zo'e

zo'e

ta

Go-er

-

goes

destination

origin

route

means.

I go here (to this) using that means (from somewhere via some route).


lujvo:

Example 2.47. 

ta

[cu]

blari'o

That

-

is-blue-green.


fu'ivla:

Example 2.48. 

ti

[cu]

djarspageti

This

-

is-spaghetti.


Some cmavo may also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. The most commonly used of these is go'i, which represents the main bridi of the previous Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:

Example 2.49. 

ta

[cu]

go'i

That

-

too/same-as-last selbri.

That (is spaghetti), too.


2.12. The sumti di'u and la'e di'u

In English, I might say The dog is beautiful, and you might reply This pleases me. How do you know what this refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to convey the possible meanings of the English:

Example 2.50. 

le gerku

[ku]

cu

melbi

The dog is beautiful.


The following three sentences all might translate as This pleases me.

Example 2.51. 

ti

[cu]

pluka

mi

This (the dog) pleases me.


Example 2.52. 

di'u

[cu]

pluka

mi

This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice).


Example 2.53. 

la'e di'u

[cu]

pluka

mi

This (the meaning of the last sentence; i.e. that the dog is beautiful) pleases me.


Example 2.53 uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to write la'edi'u as a single word; it is used more often than di'u by itself.

2.13. Possession

Possession refers to the concept of specifying an object by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban possession is given in Chapter 8. A simple means of expressing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, between the le and the selbri of the description:

Example 2.54. 

le mi gerku

cu

sutra

The of-me dog

-

is fast.

My dog is fast.


In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one may possess a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimate relationships: my arm doesn't mean some arm I own but rather the arm that is part of my body. Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.

2.14. Vocatives and commands

You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by using doi followed by their name. The sentence

Example 2.55. 

doi .djan.


means Oh, John, I'm talking to you. It also has the effect of setting the value of do; do now refers to John until it is changed in some way in the conversation. Note that Example 2.55 is not a bridi, but it is a legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as a vocative phrase.

Other cmavo can be used instead of doi in a vocative phrase, with a different significance. For example, the cmavo coi means hello and co'o means good-bye. Either word may stand alone, they may follow one another, or either may be followed by a Lojbanized name surrounded by pauses.

Example 2.56. 

coi .djan.
Hello, John.

Example 2.57. 

co'o .djan.
Good-bye, John.

Commands are expressed in Lojban by a simple variation of the main bridi structure. If you say

Example 2.58. 

do

tavla

You

are-talking.


you are simply making a statement of fact. In order to issue a command in Lojban, substitute the word ko for do. The bridi

Example 2.59. 

ko

tavla


instructs the listener to do whatever is necessary to make Example 2.58 true; it means Talk! Other examples:

Example 2.60. 

ko

sutra

Be fast!


The ko need not be in the x1 place, but rather can occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very unlike English commands:

Example 2.61. 

mi

tavla

ko

Be talked to by me.

Let me talk to you.


The cmavo ko can fill any appropriate sumti place, and can be used as often as is appropriate for the selbri:

Example 2.62. 

ko

kurji

ko


and

Example 2.63. 

ko

ko

kurji


both mean You take care of you and Be taken care of by you, or to put it colloquially, Take care of yourself.

2.15. Questions

There are many kinds of questions in Lojban: full explanations appear in Section 19.5 and in various other chapters throughout the book. In this chapter, we will introduce three kinds: sumti questions, selbri questions, and yes/no questions.

The cmavo ma is used to create a sumti question: it indicates that the speaker wishes to know the sumti which should be placed at the location of the ma to make the bridi true. It can be translated as Who? or What? in most cases, but also serves for When?, Where?, and Why? when used in sumti places that express time, location, or cause. For example:

Example 2.64. 

ma

tavla

do

mi

Who?

talks

to-you

about-me.

Who is talking to you about me?


The listener can reply by simply stating a sumti:

Example 2.65. 

la djan.

John (is talking to you about me).


Like ko, ma can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, not just in the first position:

Example 2.66. 

do

[cu]

tavla

ma

You

-

talk

to what/whom?


A ma can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once.

Example 2.67. 

ma

[cu]

tavla

ma

What/Who

-

talks

to what/whom?


The two separate ma positions ask two separate questions, and can therefore be answered with different values in each sumti place.

The cmavo mo is the selbri analogue of ma. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the mo:

Example 2.68. 

do

[cu]

mo

You

-

are-what/do-what?


A mo may be used anywhere a brivla or other selbri might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself, mo is a very non-specific question. The response to the question in Example 2.68 could be:

Example 2.69. 

mi

[cu]

melbi

I am beautiful.


or:

Example 2.70. 

mi

[cu]

tavla

I talk.


Clearly, mo requires some cooperation between the speaker and the respondent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the question more specifically using a more complex construction such as a tanru (see Section 2.9).

It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other unspecified places in responding to a mo question. Thus, the respondent in Example 2.70 could have also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response.

Finally, we must consider questions that can be answered Yes or No, such as

Example 2.71. 

Are you talking to me?


Like all yes-or-no questions in English, Example 2.71 may be reformulated as

Example 2.72. 

Is it true that you are talking to me?


In Lojban we have a word that asks precisely that question in precisely the same way. The cmavo xu, when placed in front of a bridi, asks whether that bridi is true as stated. So

Example 2.73. 

xu

do

tavla

mi

Is-it-true-that

you

are-talking

to-me?


is the Lojban translation of Example 2.71.

The answer Yes may be given by simply restating the bridi without the xu question word. Lojban has a shorthand for doing this with the word go'i, mentioned in Section 2.11. Instead of a negative answer, the bridi may be restated in such a way as to make it true. If this can be done by substituting sumti, it may be done with go'i as well. For example:

Example 2.74. 

xu

do

kanro

Are you healthy?


can be answered with

Example 2.75. 

mi

kanro

I am healthy.


or

Example 2.76. 

go'i

I am healthy.


(Note that do to the questioner is mi to the respondent.)

or

Example 2.77. 

le tavla

cu

kanro

The talker is healthy.


or

Example 2.78. 

le tavla

cu

go'i

The talker is healthy.


A general negative answer may be given by na go'i. na may be placed before any selbri (but after the cu). It is equivalent to stating It is not true that ... before the bridi. It does not imply that anything else is true or untrue, only that that specific bridi is not true. More details on negative statements are available in Chapter 15.

2.16. Indicators

Different cultures express emotions and attitudes with a variety of intonations and gestures that are not usually included in written language. Some of these are available in some languages as interjections (i.e. Aha!, Oh no!, Ouch!, Aahh!, etc.), but they vary greatly from culture to culture.

Lojban has a group of cmavo known as attitudinal indicators which specifically covers this type of commentary on spoken statements. They are both written and spoken, but require no specific intonation or gestures. Grammatically they are very simple: one or more attitudinals at the beginning of a bridi apply to the entire bridi; anywhere else in the bridi they apply to the word immediately to the left. For example:

Example 2.79. 

.ie

mi

[cu]

klama

Agreement!

I

-

go.

Yep! I'll go.


Example 2.80. 

.ei

mi

[cu]

klama

Obligation!

I

-

go.

I should go.


Example 2.81. 

mi

[cu]

klama

le melbi

I

-

go

to-the beautiful-thing

.ui

[ku]

and I am happy because it is the beautiful thing I'm going to

-


Not all indicators indicate attitudes. Discursives, another group of cmavo with the same grammatical rules as attitudinal indicators, allow free expression of certain kinds of commentary about the main utterances. Using discursives allows a clear separation of these so-called metalinguistic features from the underlying statements and logical structure. By comparison, the English words but and also, which discursively indicate contrast or an added weight of example, are logically equivalent to and, which does not have a discursive content. The average English-speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the paradoxical idea that but basically means and.

Example 2.82. 

mi

[cu]

klama

.i

do

[cu]

stali

I

-

go.

You

-

stay.


Example 2.83. 

mi

[cu]

klama

.i

ji'a

do

[cu]

stali

I

-

go.

In addition,

you

-

stay.

added weight


Example 2.84. 

mi

[cu]

klama

.i

ku'i

do

[cu]

stali

I

-

go.

However,

you

-

stay.

contrast


Another group of indicators are called evidentials. Evidentials show the speaker's relationship to the statement, specifically how the speaker came to make the statement. These include za'a (I directly observe the relationship), pe'i (I believe that the relationship holds), ru'a (I postulate the relationship), and others. Many American Indian languages use this kind of words.

Example 2.85. 

pe'i

do

[cu]

melbi

I opine!

You

-

are beautiful.


Example 2.86. 

za'a

do

[cu]

melbi

I directly observe!

You

-

are beautiful.


2.17. Tenses

In English, every verb is tagged for the grammatical category called tense: past, present, or future. The sentence

Example 2.87. 

John went to the store


necessarily happens at some time in the past, whereas

Example 2.88. 

John is going to the store


is necessarily happening right now.

The Lojban sentence

Example 2.89. 

la djan.

[cu]

klama

le zarci

John

-

goes/went/will-go

to-the store


serves as a translation of either Example 2.87 or Example 2.88, and of many other possible English sentences as well. It is not marked for tense, and can refer to an event in the past, the present or the future. This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of representing the time of an event. A close translation of Example 2.87 would be:

Example 2.90. 

la djan.

pu

klama

le zarci

John

[past]

goes

to-the store


where the tag pu forces the sentence to refer to a time in the past. Similarly,

Example 2.91. 

la djan.

ca

klama

le zarci

John

[present]

goes

to-the store


necessarily refers to the present, because of the tag ca. Tags used in this way always appear at the very beginning of the selbri, just after the cu, and they may make a cu unnecessary, since tags cannot be absorbed into tanru. Such tags serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverbs. In Lojban, tense information is completely optional. If unspecified, the appropriate tense is picked up from context.

Lojban also extends the notion of tense to refer not only to time but to space. The following example uses the tag vu to specify that the event it describes happens far away from the speaker:

Example 2.92. 

do

vu vecnu

zo'e

You

yonder sell

something-unspecified.


In addition, tense tags (either for time or space) can be prefixed to the selbri of a description, producing a tensed sumti:

Example 2.93. 

le pu bajra

[ku]

cu

tavla

The earlier/former/past runner

-

-

talked/talks.


(Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when he or she talks.)

Tensed sumti with space tags correspond roughly to the English use of this or that as adjectives, as in the following example, which uses the tag vi meaning nearby:

Example 2.94. 

le vi bajra

[ku]

cu

tavla

The nearby runner

-

-

talks.

This runner talks.


Do not confuse the use of vi in Example 2.94 with the cmavo ti, which also means this, but in the sense of this thing.

Furthermore, a tense tag can appear both on the selbri and within a description, as in the following example (where ba is the tag for future time):

Example 2.95. 

le ca vi tavla

[ku]

[cu]

ba vu tavla

The [present] here talker

-

-

[future] there talks.

The one who is talking here will talk there.


2.18. Lojban grammatical terms

Here is a review of the Lojban grammatical terms used in this chapter, plus some others used throughout this book. Only terms that are themselves Lojban words are included: there are of course many expressions like indicator in Chapter 16 that are not explained here. See the Index for further help with these.

bridi predication; the basic unit of Lojban expression; the main kind of Lojban sentence; a claim that some objects stand in some relationship, or that some single object has some property.
sumti argument; words identifying something which stands in a specified relationship to something else, or which has a specified property. See Chapter 6.
selbri logical predicate; the core of a bridi; the word or words specifying the relationship between the objects referred to by the sumti. See Chapter 5.
cmavo one of the Lojban parts of speech; a short word; a structural word; a word used for its grammatical function.
brivla one of the Lojban parts of speech; a content word; a predicate word; can function as a selbri; is a gismu, a lujvo, or a fu'ivla. See Chapter 4.
gismu a root word; a kind of brivla; has associated rafsi. See Chapter 4.
lujvo a compound word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; does not have associated rafsi. See Chapter 4 and Chapter 12.
fu'ivla a borrowed word; a kind of brivla; may or may not appear in a dictionary; copied in a modified form from some non-Lojban language; usually refers to some aspect of culture or the natural world; does not have associated rafsi. See Chapter 4.
rafsi a word fragment; one or more is associated with each gismu; can be assembled according to rules in order to make lujvo; not a valid word by itself. See Chapter 4.
tanru a group of two or more brivla, possibly with associated cmavo, that form a selbri; always divisible into two parts, with the first part modifying the meaning of the second part (which is taken to be basic). See Chapter 5.
selma'o a group of cmavo that have the same grammatical use (can appear interchangeably in sentences, as far as the grammar is concerned) but differ in meaning or other usage. See Chapter 20.

Chapter 3. The hills are alive with the sounds of Lojban

The picture for chapter 3

3.1. Orthography

Lojban is designed so that any properly spoken Lojban utterance can be uniquely transcribed in writing, and any properly written Lojban can be spoken so as to be uniquely reproduced by another person. As a consequence, the standard Lojban orthography must assign to each distinct sound, or phoneme, a unique letter or symbol. Each letter or symbol has only one sound or, more accurately, a limited range of sounds that are permitted pronunciations for that phoneme. Some symbols indicate stress (speech emphasis) and pause, which are also essential to Lojban word recognition. In addition, everything that is represented in other languages by punctuation (when written) or by tone of voice (when spoken) is represented in Lojban by words. These two properties together are known technically as audio-visual isomorphism.

Lojban uses a variant of the Latin (Roman) alphabet, consisting of the following letters and symbols:

' , . a b c d e f g i j k
l m n o p r s t u v x y z

omitting the letters h , q , and w.

The alphabetic order given above is that of the ASCII coded character set, widely used in computers. By making Lojban alphabetical order the same as ASCII, computerized sorting and searching of Lojban text is facilitated.

Capital letters are used only to represent non-standard stress, which can appear only in the representation of Lojbanized names. Thus the English name Josephine , as normally pronounced, is Lojbanized as .DJOsefin. , pronounced ['ʔdʒosɛfinʔ]. (See Section 3.2 for an explanation of the symbols within square brackets.) Technically, it is sufficient to capitalize the vowel letter, in this case O , but it is easier on the reader to capitalize the whole syllable.

Without the capitalization, the ordinary rules of Lojban stress would cause the se syllable to be stressed. Lojbanized names are meant to represent the pronunciation of names from other languages with as little distortion as may be; as such, they are exempt from many of the regular rules of Lojban phonology, as will appear in the rest of this chapter.

3.2. Basic phonetics

Lojban pronunciations are defined using the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA, a standard method of transcribing pronunciations. By convention, IPA transcriptions are always within square brackets: for example, the word cat is pronounced (in General American pronunciation) [kæt]. Section 3.10 contains a brief explanation of the IPA characters used in this chapter, with their nearest analogues in English, and will be especially useful to those not familiar with the technical terms used in describing speech sounds.

The standard pronunciations and permitted variants of the Lojban letters are listed in the table below. The descriptions have deliberately been made a bit ambiguous to cover variations in pronunciation by speakers of different native languages and dialects. In all cases except r the first IPA symbol shown represents the preferred pronunciation; for r , all of the variations (and any other rhotic sound) are equally acceptable.

Letter IPA X-SAMPA Description
' [h] [h] an unvoiced glottal spirant
, . . the syllable separator
. [ʔ] [?] a glottal stop or a pause
a [a] , [ɑ] [a] , [A] an open vowel
b [b] [b] a voiced bilabial stop
c [ʃ] , [ʂ] [S] , [s`] a voiceless postalveolar fricative
d [d] [d] a voiced dental/alveolar stop
e [ɛ] , [e] [E] , [e] a front mid vowel
f [f] , [ɸ] [f] , [p\] an unvoiced labial fricative
g [ɡ] [g] a voiced velar stop
i [i] [i] a front close vowel
j [ʒ] , [ʐ] [Z] , [z`] a voiced postalveolar fricative
k [k] [k] an unvoiced velar stop
l [l] , [l̩] [l] , [l=] a voiced lateral approximant (may be syllabic)
m [m] , [m̩] [m] , [m=] a voiced bilabial nasal (may be syllabic)
n [n] , [n̩] , [ŋ] , [ŋ̍] [n] , [n=] , [N] , [N=] a voiced dental or velar nasal (may be syllabic)
o [o] , [ɔ] [o] , [O] a back mid vowel
p [p] [p] an unvoiced bilabial stop
r [r] , [ɹ] , [ɾ] , [ʀ] , [r̩] , [ɹ̩] , [ʀ̩] [r] , [r\] , [4] , [R\] , [r=] , [r\=] , [R\=] a rhotic sound
s [s] [s] an unvoiced alveolar sibilant
t [t] [t] an unvoiced dental/alveolar stop
u [u] [u] a back close vowel
v [v] , [β] [v] , [B] a voiced labial fricative
x [x] [x] an unvoiced velar fricative
y [ə] [@] a central mid vowel
z [z] [z] a voiced alveolar sibilant

The Lojban sounds must be clearly pronounced so that they are not mistaken for each other. Voicing and placement of the tongue are the key factors in correct pronunciation, but other subtle differences will develop between consonants in a Lojban-speaking community. At this point these are the only mandatory rules on the range of sounds.

Note in particular that Lojban vowels can be pronounced with either rounded or unrounded lips; typically o and u are rounded and the others are not, as in English, but this is not a requirement; some people round y as well. Lojban consonants can be aspirated or unaspirated. Palatalizing of consonants, as found in Russian and other languages, is not generally acceptable in pronunciation, though a following i may cause it.

The sounds represented by the letters c , g , j , s , and x require special attention for speakers of English, either because they are ambiguous in the orthography of English ( c , g , s), or because they are strikingly different in Lojban ( c , j , x). The English c represents three different sounds, [k] in cat and [s] in cent , as well as the [ʃ] of ocean. Similarly, English g can represent [ɡ] as in go , [dʒ] as in gentle , and [ʒ] as in the second "g" in garage (in some pronunciations). English s can be either [s] as in cats , [z] as in cards , [ʃ] as in tension , or [ʒ] as in measure. The sound of Lojban x doesn't appear in most English dialects at all.

There are two common English sounds that are found in Lojban but are not Lojban consonants: the ch of church and the j of judge. In Lojban, these are considered two consonant sounds spoken together without an intervening vowel sound, and so are represented in Lojban by the two separate consonants: tc (IPA [tʃ]) and dj (IPA [dʒ]). In general, whether a complex sound is considered one sound or two depends on the language: Russian views ts as a single sound, whereas English, French, and Lojban consider it to be a consonant cluster.

3.3. The special Lojban characters

The apostrophe, period, and comma need special attention. They are all used as indicators of a division between syllables, but each has a different pronunciation, and each is used for different reasons:

The apostrophe represents a phoneme similar to a short, breathy English h , (IPA [h]). The letter h is not used to represent this sound for two reasons: primarily in order to simplify explanations of the morphology, but also because the sound is very common, and the apostrophe is a visually lightweight representation of it. The apostrophe sound is a consonant in nature, but is not treated as either a consonant or a vowel for purposes of Lojban morphology (word-formation), which is explained in Chapter 4. In addition, the apostrophe visually parallels the comma and the period, which are also used (in different ways) to separate syllables.

The apostrophe is included in Lojban only to enable a smooth transition between vowels, while joining the vowels within a single word. In fact, one way to think of the apostrophe is as representing an unvoiced vowel glide.

As a permitted variant, any unvoiced fricative other than those already used in Lojban may be used to render the apostrophe: IPA [θ] is one possibility. The convenience of the listener should be regarded as paramount in deciding to use a substitute for [h].

The period represents a mandatory pause, with no specified length; a glottal stop (IPA [ʔ]) is considered a pause of shortest length. A pause (or glottal stop) may appear between any two words, and in certain cases – explained in detail in Section 4.9 – must occur. In particular, a word beginning with a vowel is always preceded by a pause, and a word ending in a consonant is always surrounded by pauses.

Technically, the period is an optional reminder to the reader of a mandatory pause that is dictated by the rules of the language; because these rules are unambiguous, a missing period can be inferred from otherwise correct text. Periods are included only as an aid to the reader.

A period also may be found apparently embedded in a word. When this occurs, such a written string is not one word but two, written together to indicate that the writer intends a unitary meaning for the compound. It is not really necessary to use a space between words if a period appears.

The comma is used to indicate a syllable break within a word, generally one that is not obvious to the reader. Such a comma is written to separate syllables, but indicates that there must be no pause between them, in contrast to the period. Between two vowels, a comma indicates that some type of glide may be necessary to avoid a pause that would split the two syllables into separate words. It is always legal to use the apostrophe (IPA [h]) sound in pronouncing a comma. However, a comma cannot be pronounced as a pause or glottal stop between the two letters separated by the comma, because that pronunciation would split the word into two words.

Otherwise, a comma is usually only used to clarify the presence of syllabic l , m , n , or r (discussed later). Commas are never required: no two Lojban words differ solely because of the presence or placement of a comma.

Here is a somewhat artificial example of the difference in pronunciation between periods, commas and apostrophes. In the English song about Old MacDonald's Farm, the vowel string which is written as ee-i-ee-i-o in English could be Lojbanized with periods as:

Example 3.1. 

  • .i.ai.i.ai.o

  • [ʔi ʔaj ʔi ʔaj ʔo]

  • Ee! Eye! Ee! Eye! Oh!


However, this would sound clipped, staccato, and unmusical compared to the English. Furthermore, although Example 3.1 is a string of meaningful Lojban words, as a sentence it makes very little sense. (Note the use of periods embedded within the written word.)

If commas were used instead of periods, we could represent the English string as a Lojbanized name, ending in a consonant:

Example 3.2. 

  • .i,ai,i,ai,on.

  • [ʔi jaj ji jaj jonʔ]


The commas represent new syllable breaks, but prohibit the use of pauses or glottal stop. The pronunciation shown is just one possibility, but closely parallels the intended English pronunciation.

However, the use of commas in this way is risky to unambiguous interpretation, since the glides might be heard by some listeners as diphthongs, producing something like

Example 3.3. 

  • .i,iai,ii,iai,ion.


which is technically a different Lojban name. Since the intent with Lojbanized names is to allow them to be pronounced more like their native counterparts, the comma is allowed to represent vowel glides or some non-Lojbanic sound. Such an exception affects only spelling accuracy and the ability of a reader to replicate the desired pronunciation exactly; it will not affect the recognition of word boundaries.

Still, it is better if Lojbanized names are always distinct. Therefore, the apostrophe is preferred in regular Lojbanized names that are not attempting to simulate a non-Lojban pronunciation perfectly. (Perfection, in any event, is not really achievable, because some sounds simply lack reasonable Lojbanic counterparts.)

If apostrophes were used instead of commas in Example 3.2 , it would appear as:

Example 3.4. 

  • .i'ai'i'ai'on.

  • [ʔi hai hi hai honʔ]


which preserves the rhythm and length, if not the exact sounds, of the original English.

3.4. Diphthongs and syllabic consonants

There exist 16 diphthongs in the Lojban language. A diphthong is a vowel sound that consists of two elements, a short vowel sound and a glide, either a labial (IPA [w]) or palatal (IPA [j]) glide, that either precedes (an on-glide) or follows (an off-glide) the main vowel. Diphthongs always constitute a single syllable.

For Lojban purposes, a vowel sound is a relatively long speech-sound that forms the nucleus of a syllable. Consonant sounds are relatively brief and normally require an accompanying vowel sound in order to be audible. Consonants may occur at the beginning or end of a syllable, around the vowel, and there may be several consonants in a cluster in either position. Each separate vowel sound constitutes a distinct syllable; consonant sounds do not affect the determination of syllables.

The six Lojban vowels are a , e , i , o , u , and y. The first five vowels appear freely in all kinds of Lojban words. The vowel y has a limited distribution: it appears only in Lojbanized names, in the Lojban names of the letters of the alphabet, as a glue vowel in compound words, and standing alone as a space-filler word (like English uh or er).

The Lojban diphthongs are shown in the table below. (Variant pronunciations have been omitted, but are much as one would expect based on the variant pronunciations of the separate vowel letters: ai may be pronounced [ɑj] , for example.)

Letters IPA Description
ai [aj] an open vowel with palatal off-glide
ei [ɛj] a front mid vowel with palatal off-glide
oi [oj] a back mid vowel with palatal off-glide
au [aw] an open vowel with labial off-glide
ia [ja] an open vowel with palatal on-glide
ie [jɛ] a front mid vowel with palatal on-glide
ii [ji] a front close vowel with palatal on-glide
io [jo] a back mid vowel with palatal on-glide
iu [ju] a back close vowel with palatal on-glide
ua [wa] an open vowel with labial on-glide
ue [wɛ] a front mid vowel with labial on-glide
ui [wi] a front close vowel with labial on-glide
uo [wo] a back mid vowel with labial on-glide
uu [wu] a back close vowel with labial on-glide
iy [jə] a central mid vowel with palatal on-glide
uy [wə] a central mid vowel with labial on-glide

(Approximate English equivalents of most of these diphthongs exist: see Section 3.11 for examples.)

The first four diphthongs above ( ai , ei , oi , and au , the ones with off-glides) are freely used in most types of Lojban words; the ten following ones are used only as stand-alone words and in Lojbanized names and borrowings; and the last two ( iy and uy) are used only in Lojbanized names.

The syllabic consonants of Lojban, [l̩] , [m̩] , [n̩] , and [r̩] , are variants of the non-syllabic [l] , [m] , [n] , and [r] respectively. They normally have only a limited distribution, appearing in Lojbanized names and borrowings, although in principle any l , m , n , or r may be pronounced syllabically. If a syllabic consonant appears next to a l , m , n , or r that is not syllabic, it may not be clear which is which:

Example 3.5. 

  • .brlgan.

  • [br̩l gan]

  • or

  • [brl̩ gan]


is a hypothetical Lojbanized name with more than one valid pronunciation; however it is pronounced, it remains the same word.

Syllabic consonants are treated as consonants rather than vowels from the standpoint of Lojban morphology. Thus Lojbanized names, which are generally required to end in a consonant, are allowed to end with a syllabic consonant. An example is .rl. , which is an approximation of the English name Earl , and has two syllabic consonants.

Syllables with syllabic consonants and no vowel are never stressed or counted when determining which syllables to stress (see Section 3.9).

3.5. Vowel pairs

Lojban vowels also occur in pairs, where each vowel sound is in a separate syllable. These two vowel sounds are connected (and separated) by an apostrophe. Lojban vowel pairs should be pronounced continuously with the [h] sound between (and not by a glottal stop or pause, which would split the two vowels into separate words).

All vowel combinations are permitted in two-syllable pairs with the apostrophe separating them; this includes those which constitute diphthongs when the apostrophe is not included.

The Lojban vowel pairs are:

a'a a'e a'i a'o a'u a'y
e'a e'e e'i e'o e'u e'y
i'a i'e i'i i'o i'u i'y
o'a o'e o'i o'o o'u o'y
u'a u'e u'i u'o u'u u'y
y'a y'e y'i y'o y'u y'y

Vowel pairs involving y appear only in Lojbanized names. They could appear in cmavo (structure words), but only .y'y. is so used – it is the Lojban name of the apostrophe letter (see Section 17.2).

When more than two vowels occur together in Lojban, the normal pronunciation pairs vowels from the left into syllables, as in the Lojbanized name:

Example 3.6. 

  • .meiin.

  • .mei,in.


Example 3.6 contains the diphthong ei followed by the vowel i. In order to indicate a different grouping, the comma must always be used, leading to:

Example 3.7. 

  • .me,iin.


which contains the vowel e followed by the diphthong ii. In rough English representation, Example 3.6 is May Een , whereas Example 3.7 is Meh Yeen.

3.6. Consonant clusters

A consonant sound is a relatively brief speech-sound that precedes or follows a vowel sound in a syllable; its presence either preceding or following does not add to the count of syllables, nor is a consonant required in either position for any syllable. Lojban has seventeen consonants: for the purposes of this section, the apostrophe is not counted as a consonant.

An important distinction dividing Lojban consonants is that of voicing. The following table shows the unvoiced consonants and the corresponding voiced ones:

UNVOICED VOICED
p b
t d
k g
f v
c j
s z
x -

The consonant x has no voiced counterpart in Lojban. The remaining consonants, l , m , n , and r , are typically pronounced with voice, but can be pronounced unvoiced.

Consonant sounds occur in languages as single consonants, or as doubled, or as clustered combinations. Single consonant sounds are isolated by word boundaries or by intervening vowel sounds from other consonant sounds. Doubled consonant sounds are either lengthened like [s] in English hiss , or repeated like [k] in English backcourt. Consonant clusters consist of two or more single or doubled consonant sounds in a group, each of which is different from its immediate neighbor. In Lojban, doubled consonants are excluded altogether, and clusters are limited to two or three members, except in Lojbanized names.

Consonants can occur in three positions in words: initial (at the beginning), medial (in the middle), and final (at the end). In many languages, the sound of a consonant varies depending upon its position in the word. In Lojban, as much as possible, the sound of a consonant is unrelated to its position. In particular, the common American English trait of changing a t between vowels into a d or even an alveolar tap (IPA [ɾ]) is unacceptable in Lojban.

Lojban imposes no restrictions on the appearance of single consonants in any valid consonant position; however, no consonant (including syllabic consonants) occurs final in a word except in Lojbanized names.

Pairs of consonants can also appear freely, with the following restrictions:

  1. It is forbidden for both consonants to be the same, as this would violate the rule against double consonants.

  2. It is forbidden for one consonant to be voiced and the other unvoiced. The consonants l , m , n , and r are exempt from this restriction. As a result, bf is forbidden, and so is sd , but both fl and vl , and both ls and lz , are permitted.

  3. It is forbidden for both consonants to be drawn from the set c , j , s , z.

  4. The specific pairs cx , kx , xc , xk , and mz are forbidden.

These rules apply to all kinds of words, even Lojbanized names. If a name would normally contain a forbidden consonant pair, a y can be inserted to break up the pair:

Example 3.8. 

  • .djeimyz.

  • [dʒɛj məzʔ]

  • James


The regular English pronunciation of James , which is [dʒɛjmz] , would Lojbanize as .djeimz. , which contains a forbidden consonant pair.

3.7. Initial consonant pairs

The set of consonant pairs that may appear at the beginning of a word (excluding Lojbanized names) is far more restricted than the fairly large group of permissible consonant pairs described in Section 3.6. Even so, it is more than English allows, although hopefully not more than English-speakers (and others) can learn to pronounce.

There are just 48 such permissible initial consonant pairs, as follows:

bl br
cf ck cl cm cn cp cr ct
dj dr dz
fl fr
gl gr
jb jd jg jm jv
kl kr
ml mr
pl pr
sf sk sl sm sn sp sr st
tc tr ts
vl vr
xl xr
zb zd zg zm zv

Lest this list seem almost random, a pairing of voiced and unvoiced equivalent consonants will show significant patterns which may help in learning:

pl pr fl fr
bl br vl vr

cp cf ct ck cm cn cl cr
jb jv jd jg jm
sp sf st sk sm sn sl sr
zb zv zd zg zm

tc tr ts kl kr
dj dr dz gl gr

ml mr xl xr

Note that if both consonants of an initial pair are voiced, the unvoiced equivalent is also permissible, and the voiced pair can be pronounced simply by voicing the unvoiced pair. (The converse is not true: cn is a permissible initial pair, but jn is not.)

Consonant triples can occur medially in Lojban words. They are subject to the following rules:

  1. The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair;

  2. The last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair;

  3. The triples ndj , ndz , ntc , and nts are forbidden.

Lojbanized names can begin or end with any permissible consonant pair, not just the 48 initial consonant pairs listed above, and can have consonant triples in any location, as long as the pairs making up those triples are permissible. In addition, Lojbanized names can contain consonant clusters with more than three consonants, again requiring that each pair within the cluster is valid.

3.8. Buffering of consonant clusters

Many languages do not have consonant clusters at all, and even those languages that do have them often allow only a subset of the full Lojban set. As a result, the Lojban design allows the use of a buffer sound between consonant combinations which a speaker finds unpronounceable. This sound may be any non-Lojbanic vowel which is clearly separable by the listener from the Lojban vowels. Some possibilities are IPA [ɪ] , [ɨ] , [ʊ] , or even [ʏ] , but there probably is no universally acceptable buffer sound. When using a consonant buffer, the sound should be made as short as possible. Two examples showing such buffering (we will use [ɪ] in this chapter) are:

Example 3.9. 

  • vrusi

  • [ˈvru si]

  • or

  • [vɪ ˈru si]


Example 3.10. 

  • .AMsterdam.

  • [ʔam ster damʔ]

  • or

  • [ˈʔa mɪ sɪ tɛ rɪ da mɪʔ]


When a buffer vowel is used, it splits each buffered consonant into its own syllable. However, the buffering syllables are never stressed, and are not counted in determining stress. They are, in effect, not really syllables to a Lojban listener, and thus their impact is ignored.

Here are more examples of unbuffered and buffered pronunciations:

Example 3.11. 

  • klama

  • [ˈkla ma]

  • [kɪ ˈla ma]


Example 3.12. 

  • xapcke

  • [ˈxap ʃkɛ]

  • [ˈxa pɪ ʃkɛ]

  • [ˈxa pɪ ʃɪ kɛ]


In Example 3.12 , we see that buffering vowels can be used in just some, rather than all, of the possible places: the second pronunciation buffers the pc consonant pair but not the ck. The third pronunciation buffers both.

Example 3.13. 

  • ponyni'u

  • [po nə 'ni hu]


Example 3.13 cannot contain any buffering vowel. It is important not to confuse the vowel y , which is pronounced [ə] , with the buffer, which has a variety of possible pronunciations and is never written. Consider the contrast between

Example 3.14. 

  • bongynanba

  • [boŋ gə ˈnan ba]


an unlikely Lojban compound word meaning bone bread (note the use of [ŋ] as a representative of n before g) and

Example 3.15. 

  • bongnanba

  • [boŋ ˈgnan ba]


a possible borrowing from another language (Lojban borrowings can only take a limited form). If Example 3.15 were pronounced with buffering, as

Example 3.16. 

  • [boŋ gɪ ˈnan ba]


it would be very similar to Example 3.14. Only a clear distinction between y and any buffering vowel would keep the two words distinct.

Since buffering is done for the benefit of the speaker in order to aid pronounceability, there is no guarantee that the listener will not mistake a buffer vowel for one of the six regular Lojban vowels. The buffer vowel should be as laxly pronounced as possible, as central as possible, and as short as possible. Furthermore, it is worthwhile for speakers who use buffers to pronounce their regular vowels a bit longer than usual, to avoid confusion with buffer vowels. The speakers of many languages will have trouble correctly hearing any of the suggested buffer vowels otherwise. By this guideline, Example 3.16 would be pronounced

Example 3.17. 

  • [boːŋ gɪ ˈnaːn baː]


with lengthened vowels.

3.9. Syllabication and stress

A Lojban word has one syllable for each of its vowels, diphthongs, and syllabic consonants (referred to simply as vowels for the purposes of this section). Syllabication rules determine which of the consonants separating two vowels belong to the preceding vowel and which to the following vowel. These rules are conventional only; the phonetic facts of the matter about how utterances are syllabified in any language are always very complex.

A single consonant always belongs to the following vowel. A consonant pair is normally divided between the two vowels; however, if the pair constitute a valid initial consonant pair, they are normally both assigned to the following vowel. A consonant triple is divided between the first and second consonants. Apostrophes and commas, of course, also represent syllable breaks. Syllabic consonants usually appear alone in their syllables.

It is permissible to vary from these rules in Lojbanized names. For example, there are no definitive rules for the syllabication of Lojbanized names with consonant clusters longer than three consonants. The comma is used to indicate variant syllabication or to explicitly mark normal syllabication.

Here are some examples of Lojban syllabication:

Example 3.18. 

  • pujenaicajeba

  • pu,je,nai,ca,je,ba


This word has no consonant pairs and is therefore syllabified before each medial consonant.

Example 3.19. 

  • ninmu

  • nin,mu


This word is split at a consonant pair.

Example 3.20. 

  • fitpri

  • fit,pri


This word is split at a consonant triple, between the first two consonants of the triple.

Example 3.21. 

  • sairgoi

  • sair,goi

  • sai,r,goi


This word contains the consonant pair rg ; the r may be pronounced syllabically or not.

Example 3.22. 

  • klezba

  • klez,ba

  • kle,zba


This word contains the permissible initial pair zb , and so may be syllabicated either between z and b or before zb.

Stress is a relatively louder pronunciation of one syllable in a word or group of words. Since every syllable has a vowel sound (or diphthong or syllabic consonant) as its nucleus, and the stress is on the vowel sound itself, the terms stressed syllable and stressed vowel are largely interchangeable concepts.

Most Lojban words are stressed on the next-to-the-last, or penultimate, syllable. In counting syllables, however, syllables whose vowel is y or which contain a syllabic consonant ( l , m , n , or r) are never counted. (The Lojban term for penultimate stress is da'amoi terbasna.) Similarly, syllables created solely by adding a buffer vowel, such as [ɪ] , are not counted.

There are actually three levels of stress – primary, secondary, and weak. Weak stress is the lowest level, so it really means no stress at all. Weak stress is required for syllables containing y , a syllabic consonant, or a buffer vowel.

Primary stress is required on the penultimate syllable of Lojban content words (called brivla). Lojbanized names (called cmevla) may be stressed on any syllable, but if a syllable other than the penultimate is stressed, the syllable (or at least its vowel) must be capitalized in writing. Lojban structural words (called cmavo) may be stressed on any syllable or none at all. However, primary stress may not be used in a syllable just preceding a brivla, unless a pause divides them; otherwise, the two words may run together.

Secondary stress is the optional and non-distinctive emphasis used for other syllables besides those required to have either weak or primary stress. There are few rules governing secondary stress, which typically will follow a speaker's native language habits or preferences. Secondary stress can be used for contrast, or for emphasis of a point. Secondary stress can be emphasized at any level up to primary stress, although the speaker must not allow a false primary stress in brivla, since errors in word resolution could result.

The following are Lojban words with stress explicitly shown:

Example 3.23. 

  • dikyjvo

  • DI,ky,jvo


(In a fully-buffered dialect, the pronunciation would be: ['di kə ʒɪ vo].) Note that the syllable ky. is not counted in determining stress. The vowel y is never stressed in a normal Lojban context.

Example 3.24. 

  • .armstrong.

  • .ARM,strong.


This is a Lojbanized version of the name Armstrong. The final g must be explicitly pronounced. With full buffering, the name would be pronounced:

Example 3.25. 

  • [ˈʔa rɪ mɪ sɪ tɪ ro nɪ gɪʔ]


However, there is no need to insert a buffer in every possible place just because it is inserted in one place: partial buffering is also acceptable. In every case, however, the stress remains in the same place: on the first syllable.

The English pronunciation of Armstrong , as spelled in English, is not correct by Lojban standards; the letters ng in English represent a velar nasal (IPA [ŋ]) which is a single consonant. In Lojban, ng represents two separate consonants that must both be pronounced; you may not use [ŋ] to pronounce Lojban ng , although [ŋg] is acceptable. English speakers are likely to have to pronounce the ending with a buffer, as one of the following:

Example 3.26. 

  • [ˈʔarm stron gɪʔ]

  • or

  • [ˈʔarm stroŋ gɪʔ]

  • or even

  • [ˈʔarm stro nɪgʔ]


The normal English pronunciation of the name Armstrong could be Lojbanized as:

Example 3.27. 

  • .ARMstron.


since Lojban n is allowed to be pronounced as the velar nasal [ŋ].

Here is another example showing the use of y :

Example 3.28. 

  • bisydja

  • BI,sy,dja

  • BI,syd,ja


This word is a compound word, or lujvo, built from the two affixes bis and dja. When they are joined, an impermissible consonant pair results: sd. In accordance with the algorithm for making lujvo, explained in Section 4.11 , a y is inserted to separate the impermissible consonant pair; the y is not counted as a syllable for purposes of stress determination.

Example 3.29. 

  • da'udja

  • da'UD,ja

  • da'U,dja


These two syllabications sound the same to a Lojban listener – the association of unbuffered consonants in syllables is of no import in recognizing the word.

Example 3.30. 

  • e'u bridi

  • e'u BRI,di

  • E'u BRI,di

  • e'U.BRI,di


In Example 3.30 , .e'u is a cmavo and bridi is a brivla. Either of the first two pronunciations is permitted: no primary stress on either syllable of .e'u , or primary stress on the first syllable. The third pronunciation, which places primary stress on the second syllable of the cmavo, requires that – since the following word is a brivla – the two words must be separated by a pause. Consider the following two cases:

Example 3.31. 

  • le re nobli prenu

  • le re NObli PREnu


Example 3.32. 

  • le re no bliprenu

  • le re no bliPREnu


If the cmavo no in Example 3.32 were to be stressed, the phrase would sound exactly like the given pronunciation of Example 3.31 , which is unacceptable in Lojban: a single pronunciation cannot represent both.

3.10. IPA for English speakers

There are many dialects of English, thus making it difficult to define the standardized symbols of the IPA in terms useful to every reader. All the symbols used in this chapter are repeated here, in more or less alphabetical order, with examples drawn from General American. In addition, some attention is given to the Received Pronunciation of (British) English. These two dialects are referred to as GA and RP respectively. Speakers of other dialects should consult a book on phonetics or their local television sets.

[ˈ] An IPA indicator of primary stress; the syllable which follows [ˈ] receives primary stress.
[ʔ] An allowed variant of Lojban .. This sound is not usually considered part of English. It is the catch in your throat that sometimes occurs prior to the beginning of a word (and sometimes a syllable) which starts with a vowel. In some dialects, like Cockney and some kinds of American English, it is used between vowels instead of t : bottle [boʔl̩]. The English interjection uh-oh! almost always has it between the syllables.
[ː] A symbol indicating that the previous vowel is to be spoken for a longer time than usual. Lojban vowels can be pronounced long in order to make a greater contrast with buffer vowels.
[a] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban a. This sound doesn't occur in GA, but sounds somewhat like the ar of park , as spoken in RP or New England American. It is pronounced further forward in the mouth than [ɑ].
[ɑ] An allowed variant of Lojban a. The a of GA father. The sound [a] is preferred because GA speakers often relax an unstressed [ɑ] into a schwa [ə] , as in the usual pronunciations of about and sofa. Because schwa is a distinct vowel in Lojban, English speakers must either learn to avoid this shift or to use [a] instead: the Lojban word for sofa is sfofa , pronounced [sfofa] or [sfofɑ] but never [sfofə] which would be the non-word sfofy.
[æ] Not a Lojban sound. The a of English cat.
[b] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban b. As in English boy , sober , or job.
[β] An allowed variant of Lojban v. Not an English sound; the Spanish b or v between vowels. This sound should not be used for Lojban b.
[d] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban d. As in English dog , soda , or mad.
[ɛ] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban e. The e of English met.
[e] An allowed variant of Lojban e. This sound is not found in English, but is the Spanish e , or the tense «e» of Italian. The vowel of English say is similar except for the off-glide: you can learn to make this sound by holding your tongue steady while saying the first part of the English vowel.
[ə] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban y. As in the a of English sofa or about. Schwa is generally unstressed in Lojban, as it is in English. It is a totally relaxed sound made with the tongue in the middle of the mouth.
[f] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban f. As in fee , loafer , or chef.
[ɸ] An allowed variant of Lojban f. Not an English sound; the Japanese f sound.
[g] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban g. As in English go , eagle , or dog.
[h] The preferred pronunciation of the Lojban apostrophe sound. As in English aha or the second "h" in oh, hello.
[i] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban i. Essentially like the English vowel of pizza or machine , although the English vowel is sometimes pronounced with an off-glide, which should not be present in Lojban.
[ɪ] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The i of English bit.
[ɨ] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. The u of just in some varieties of GA, those which make the word sound more or less like jist. Also Russian «y» as in «byt'» (to be); like a schwa [ə] , but higher in the mouth.
[j] Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with i. Like the y in English yard or say.
[k] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban k. As in English kill , token , or flak.
[l] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban l. As in English low , nylon , or excel.
[l̩] The syllabic version of Lojban l , as in English bottle or middle.
[m] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban m. As in English me , humor , or ham.
[m̩] The syllabic version of Lojban m. As in English catch 'em or bottom.
[n] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban n. As in English no , honor , or son.
[n̩] The syllabic version of Lojban n. As in English button.
[ŋ] An allowed variant of Lojban n , especially in Lojbanized names and before g or k. As in English sing or singer (but not finger or danger).
[ŋ̍] An allowed variant of Lojban syllabic n , especially in Lojbanized names.
[o] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban o. As in the French « haute (cuisine) » or Spanish como. There is no exact English equivalent of this sound. The nearest GA equivalent is the o of dough or joke , but it is essential that the off-glide (a [w] -like sound) at the end of the vowel is not pronounced when speaking Lojban. The RP sound in these words is [əw] in IPA terms, and has no [o] in it at all; unless you can speak with a Scots, Irish, or American accent, you may have trouble with this sound.
[ɔ] An allowed variant of Lojban o , especially before r. This sound is a shortened form of the aw in GA dawn (for those people who don't pronounce dawn and Don alike; if you do, you may have trouble with this sound). In RP, but not GA, it is the o of hot.
[p] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban p. As in English pay , super , or up.
[r] One version of Lojban r. Not an English sound. The Spanish rr and the Scots r , a tongue-tip trill.
[ɹ] One version of Lojban r. As in GA right , baron , or car. Not found in RP.
[ɾ] One version of Lojban r. In GA, appears as a variant of t or d in the words metal and medal respectively. A tongue-tip flap.
[ʀ] One version of Lojban r. Not an English sound. The French or German « r » in « reine » or rot respectively. A uvular trill.
[r̩] , [ɹ̩] , [ʀ̩] Syllabic versions of the above. [ɹ̩] appears in the GA (but not RP) pronunciation of bird.
[s] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban s. As in English so , basin , or yes.
[ʃ] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban c. The sh of English ship , ashen , or dish.
[ʂ] An allowed variant of Lojban c. Not an English sound. The Hindi retroflex s with dot below, or Klingon S.
[t] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban t. As in English tea , later , or not. It is important to avoid the GA habit of pronouncing the t between vowels as [d] or [ɾ].
[θ] Not normally a Lojban sound, but a possible variant of Lojban '. The th of English thin (but not then).
[u] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban u. As in the French « boule » or German Stuhl. There is no exact English equivalent of this sound. The nearest sound appears in boot or cool, but many dialects pronounce these with an off-glide, which should not be present when speaking Lojban.
[v] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban v. As in English voice , savor , or live.
[w] Used in Lojban diphthongs beginning or ending with u. Like the w in English wet [wɛt] or cow [kɑw].
[x] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban x. Not normally an English sound, but used in some pronunciations of loch and Bach ; gh in Scots might and night. The German Ach-Laut. To pronounce [x] , force air through your throat without vibrating your vocal chords; there should be lots of scrape.
[ʏ] A possible Lojban buffer vowel. Not an English sound: the ü of German hübsch.
[z] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban z. As in English zoo , hazard , or fizz.
[ʒ] The preferred pronunciation of Lojban j. The si of English vision , or the consonant at the end of GA garage.
[ʐ] An allowed variant of Lojban j. Not an English sound. The voiced version of [ʂ].

3.11. English analogues for Lojban diphthongs

Here is a list of English words that contain diphthongs that are similar to the Lojban diphthongs. This list does not constitute an official pronunciation guide; it is intended as a help to English-speakers.

Lojban English
ai pie
ei pay
oi boy
au cow
ia yard
ie yes
ii ye
io yodel (in GA only)
iu unicorn or few
ua suave
ue wet
ui we
uo woe (in GA only)
uu woo
iy million (the io part, that is)
uy was (when unstressed)

3.12. Oddball orthographies

The following notes describe ways in which Lojban has been written or could be written that differ from the standard orthography explained in the rest of this chapter. Nobody needs to read this section except people with an interest in the obscure. Technicalities are used without explanation or further apology.

There exists an alternative orthography for Lojban, which is designed to be as compatible as possible (but no more so) with the orthography used in pre-Lojban versions of Loglan. The consonants undergo no change, except that x is replaced by h. The individual vowels likewise remain unchanged. However, the vowel pairs and diphthongs are changed as follows:

  • ai , ei , oi , au become ai , ei , oi , ao.

  • ia through iu and ua through uu remain unchanged.

  • a'i , e'i , o'i and a'o become a,i , e,i , o,i and a,o.

  • i'a through i'u and u'a through u'u are changed to ia through iu and ua through uu in lujvo and cmavo other than attitudinals, but become i,a through i,u and u,a through u,u in cmevla, fu'ivla, and attitudinal cmavo.

  • All other vowel pairs simply drop the apostrophe.

The result of these rules is to eliminate the apostrophe altogether, replacing it with comma where necessary, and otherwise with nothing. In addition, names and the cmavo .i are capitalized, and irregular stress is marked with an apostrophe (now no longer used for a sound) following the stressed syllable.

Three points must be emphasized about this alternative orthography:

  • It is not standard, and has not been used.

  • It does not represent any changes to the standard Lojban phonology; it is simply a representation of the same phonology using a different written form.

  • It was designed to aid in a planned rapprochement between the Logical Language Group and The Loglan Institute, a group headed by James Cooke Brown. The rapprochement never took place.

There also exists a Cyrillic orthography for Lojban which was designed when the introductory Lojban brochure was translated into Russian.

а
a
б
b
ш
c
д
d
е
e
ф
f
г
g
и
i
ж
j
к
k
л
k
м
m
н
n
о
o
п
p
р
r
с
s
т
t
у
u
в
v
х
x
ъ
y
з
z

The Lojban letter y is mapped onto the hard sign ъ , as in Bulgarian. The apostrophe, comma, and period are unchanged. Diphthongs are written as vowel pairs, as in the Roman representation. Capital Lojban letters are written using corresponding capital Cyrillic letters.

An orthography using the Tengwar of Féanor, a fictional orthography invented by J. R. R. Tolkien and described in the Appendixes to The Lord Of The Rings , has been devised for Lojban. The following mapping, which closely resembles that used for Westron, will be meaningful only to those who have read those appendixes. In brief, the tincotéma and parmatéma are used in the conventional ways; the calmatéma represents palatal consonants, and the quessetéma represents velar consonants.

tinco
t
calma
-
ando
d
anga
-
thule
-
harma
c
anto
-
anca
j
numen
n
noldo
-
ore
r
anna
i
parma
p
quesse
k
umbar
b
ungwe
g
formen
f
hwesta
x
ampa
v
unque
-
malta
m
nwalme
-
vala
u
vilya
-

The letters vala and anna are used for u and i only when those letters are used to represent glides. Of the additional letters, r , l , s , and z are written with rómen , lambe , silme , and áre / esse respectively; the inverted forms are used as free variants.

Finally, the zbalermorna orthography exists, which is completely unofficial.

In this orthography each symbol is made of a base radical element, which represents a consonant, which is then modified, if necessary, by another smaller symbol called a diacritic element, which represents a vowel.

If the consonant is not followed by a vowel then no diacritic element is used.

The set of radical elements in zbalermorna:

p
t
k
f
b
d
g
v
l
s
c
m
r
z
j
n
x
.
'
combining .y'y.bu
i (only before vowels)
u (only before vowels)

The set of diacritic elements:


a

e

i

o

u

y

au

ai

ei

oi

Diacritic elements are written above radical elements, e.g.  (drani),  (roda),  (rode),  (rodi).

Words in zbalermorna are separated with spaces.

The radical element for the Lojban letter i () is only used in front of vowels; it is not interchangeable with  . Similarly, the element for u () is only used in front of vowels and is not interchangeable with  ).

When a fu'ivla or a cmavo starts with i or u and a vowel follows it then in zbalermorna the radical for the initial period is not used.

An example would be    (do .io .ui with no initial periods).

The symbol for the period after the word can also be optionally omitted for the word of any class in cases when this word is the last word of the text and in cases when the current and the next word are separated with space. Periods in front of and after cmevla are not required, and are discouraged from being used when they are at text borders or separated by space from other words.

In zbalermorna there is an alternate form of the apostrophe called the combining .y'y.bu or attitudinal shorthand; it exists to make it more natural to write a period and an apostrophe in two consecutive syllables (a sequence, which represents the majority of the set of attitudinals). The combining .y'y.bu spans over both syllables and replaces the radical elements in them.

Examples would be  (.i'i),  (.a'e),  (.y'y.bu).

There is an additional set of elements for vowels, called full vowel elements:

a
e
i
o
u
y

au

ai

ei

oi

These full vowels elements are to be used in cmevla and fu'ivla instead of diacritic elements. Symbols (for i before vowels) and (for u before vowels) are used as previously explained. Examples of cmevla would be  (.katrinas. with no periods),  (.djein. with no periods).

There are two reasons for using full vowel elements.

Firstly, to give a distinct visual style and flavour to cmevla and fu'ivla.

Secondly, to implement some functionality of the comma. In standard orthography the comma can be used to separate consecutive vowels into different syllables. In the zbalermorna orthography, full vowel elements can be used to represent a comma and a following vowel. An example would be  (.uein.) as opposed to  (.ue,in.).

Chapter 4. The shape of words to come: Lojban morphology

The picture for chapter 4

4.1. Introductory

Morphology is the part of grammar that deals with the form of words. Lojban's morphology is fairly simple compared to that of many languages, because Lojban words don't change form depending on how they are used. English has only a small number of such changes compared to languages like Russian, but it does have changes like boys as the plural of boy , or walked as the past-tense form of walk. To make plurals or past tenses in Lojban, you add separate words to the sentence that express the number of boys, or the time when the walking was going on.

However, Lojban does have what is called derivational morphology : the capability of building new words from old words. In addition, the form of words tells us something about their grammatical uses, and sometimes about the means by which they entered the language. Lojban has very orderly rules for the formation of words of various types, both the words that already exist and new words yet to be created by speakers and writers.

A stream of Lojban sounds can be uniquely broken up into its component words according to specific rules. These so-called morphology rules are summarized in this chapter. (However, a detailed algorithm for breaking sounds into words has not yet been fully debugged, and so is not presented in this book.) First, here are some conventions used to talk about groups of Lojban letters, including vowels and consonants.

  1. V represents any single Lojban vowel except y ; that is, it represents a , e , i , o , or u.

  2. VV represents either a diphthong, one of the following:

    ai ei oi au

    or a two-syllable vowel pair with an apostrophe separating the vowels, one of the following:

    a'a a'e a'i a'o a'u
    e'a e'e e'i e'o e'u
    i'a i'e i'i i'o i'u
    o'a o'e o'i o'o o'u
    u'a u'e u'i u'o u'u

  3. C represents a single Lojban consonant, not including the apostrophe, one of b , c , d , f , g , j , k , l , m , n , p , r , s , t , v , x , or z . Syllabic l , m , n , and r always count as consonants for the purposes of this chapter.

  4. CC represents two adjacent consonants of type C which constitute one of the 48 permissible initial consonant pairs:

    pl pr fl fr
    bl br vl vr

    cp cf ct ck cm cn cl cr
    jb jv jd jg jm
    sp sf st sk sm sn sl sr
    zb zv zd zg zm

    tc tr ts kl kr
    dj dr dz gl gr

    ml mr xl xr
  5. C/C represents two adjacent consonants which constitute one of the permissible consonant pairs (not necessarily a permissible initial consonant pair). The permissible consonant pairs are explained in Section 3.6. In brief, any consonant pair is permissible unless it: contains two identical letters, contains both a voiced (excluding r , l , m , n) and an unvoiced consonant, or is one of certain specified forbidden pairs.

  6. C/CC represents a consonant triple. The first two consonants must constitute a permissible consonant pair; the last two consonants must constitute a permissible initial consonant pair.

Lojban has three basic word classes – parts of speech – in contrast to the eight that are traditional in English. These three classes are called cmavo, brivla, and cmevla. Each of these classes has uniquely identifying properties – an arrangement of letters that allows the word to be uniquely and unambiguously recognized as a separate word in a string of Lojban, upon either reading or hearing, and as belonging to a specific word-class.

They are also functionally different: cmavo are the structure words, corresponding to English words like and , if , the and to ; brivla are the content words, corresponding to English words like come , red , doctor , and freely ; cmevla are proper names, corresponding to English James , Afghanistan , and Pope John Paul II.

4.2. cmavo

The first group of Lojban words discussed in this chapter are the cmavo. They are the structure words that hold the Lojban language together. They often have no semantic meaning in themselves, though they may affect the semantics of brivla to which they are attached. The cmavo include the equivalent of English articles, conjunctions, prepositions, numbers, and punctuation marks. There are over a hundred subcategories of cmavo, known as selma'o , each having a specifically defined grammatical usage. The various selma'o are discussed throughout Chapter 5 to Chapter 19 and summarized in Chapter 20.

Standard cmavo occur in four forms defined by their word structure. Here are some examples of the various forms:

In addition, there is the cmavo .y. (remember that y is not a V), which must have pauses before and after it.

A simple cmavo thus has the property of having only one or two vowels, or of having a single consonant followed by one or two vowels. Words consisting of three or more vowels in a row, or a single consonant followed by three or more vowels, are also of cmavo form, but are reserved for experimental use: a few examples are ku'a'e , sau'e , and bai'ai. All CVV cmavo beginning with the letter x are also reserved for experimental use. In general, though, the form of a cmavo tells you little or nothing about its grammatical use.

Experimental use means that the language designers will not assign any standard meaning or usage to these words, and words and usages coined by Lojban speakers will not appear in official dictionaries for the indefinite future. Experimental-use words provide an escape hatch for adding grammatical mechanisms (as opposed to semantic concepts) the need for which was not foreseen.

The cmavo of VV-form include not only the diphthongs and vowel pairs listed in Section 4.1 , but also the following ten additional diphthongs:

.ia .ie .ii .io .iu
.ua .ue .ui .uo .uu

In addition, cmavo can have the form Cy , a consonant followed by the letter y. These cmavo represent letters of the Lojban alphabet, and are discussed in detail in Chapter 17.

Compound cmavo are sequences of cmavo attached together to form a single written word. A compound cmavo is always identical in meaning and in grammatical use to the separated sequence of simple cmavo from which it is composed. These words are written in compound form merely to save visual space, and to ease the reader's burden in identifying when the component cmavo are acting together.

Compound cmavo, while not visually short like their components, can be readily identified by two characteristics:

  1. They have no consonant pairs or clusters, and

  2. They end in a vowel.

For example:

Example 4.1. 

  • .iseci'i

  • .i se ci'i


Example 4.2. 

  • punaijecanai

  • pu nai je ca nai


Example 4.3. 

  • ki'e.u'e

  • ki'e .u'e


The cmavo .u'e begins with a vowel, and like all words beginning with a vowel, requires a pause (represented by .) before it. This pause cannot be omitted simply because the cmavo is incorporated into a compound cmavo. On the other hand,

Example 4.4. 

ki'e'u'e


is a single cmavo reserved for experimental purposes: it has four vowels.

Example 4.5. 

  • cy.ibu.abu

  • cy. .ibu .abu


Again the pauses are required (see Section 4.9); the pause after cy. merges with the pause before .ibu.

There is no particular stress required in cmavo or their compounds. Some conventions do exist that are not mandatory. For two-syllable cmavo, for example, stress is typically placed on the first vowel; an example is

Example 4.6. 

  • .e'o ko ko kurji

  • .E'o ko ko KURji


This convention results in a consistent rhythm to the language, since brivla are required to have penultimate stress; some find this esthetically pleasing.

If the final syllable of one word is stressed, and the first syllable of the next word is stressed, you must insert a pause or glottal stop between the two stressed syllables. Thus

Example 4.7. 

le re nanmu


can be optionally pronounced

Example 4.8. 

  • le RE. NANmu


since there are no rules forcing stress on either of the first two words; the stress on re , though, demands that a pause separate re from the following syllable nan to ensure that the stress on nan is properly heard as a stressed syllable. The alternative pronunciation

Example 4.9. 

  • LE re NANmu


is also valid; this would apply secondary stress (used for purposes of emphasis, contrast or sentence rhythm) to le , comparable in rhythmical effect to the English phrase THE two men. In Example 4.8 , the secondary stress on re would be similar to that in the English phrase the TWO men.

Both cmavo may also be left unstressed, thus:

Example 4.10. 

  • le re NANmu


This would probably be the most common usage.

4.3. brivla

Predicate words, called brivla , are at the core of Lojban. They carry most of the semantic information in the language. They serve as the equivalent of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, all in a single part of speech.

Every brivla belongs to one of three major subtypes. These subtypes are defined by the form, or morphology, of the word – all words of a particular structure can be assigned by sight or sound to a particular type (cmavo, brivla, or cmevla) and subtype. Knowing the type and subtype then gives you, the reader or listener, significant clues to the meaning and the origin of the word, even if you have never heard the word before.

The same principle allows you, when speaking or writing, to invent new brivla for new concepts on the fly ; yet it offers people that you are trying to communicate with a good chance to figure out your meaning. In this way, Lojban has a flexible vocabulary which can be expanded indefinitely.

All brivla have the following properties:

  1. always end in a vowel;

  2. always contain a consonant pair in the first five letters, where y and apostrophe are not counted as letters for this purpose (see Section 4.6);

  3. always are stressed on the next-to-the-last (penultimate) syllable; this implies that they have two or more syllables.

The presence of a consonant pair distinguishes brivla from cmavo and their compounds. The final vowel distinguishes brivla from cmevla, which always end in a consonant. Thus da'amei must be a compound cmavo because it lacks a consonant pair; .lojban. must be a cmevla because it lacks a final vowel.

Thus, bisycla has the consonant pair sc in the first five non- y letters even though the sc actually appears in the form of sy.. Similarly, the word ro'inre'o contains nr in the first five letters because the apostrophes are not counted for this purpose.

The three subtypes of brivla are:

  1. gismu, the Lojban primitive roots from which all other brivla are built;

  2. lujvo, the compounds of two or more gismu; and

  3. fu'ivla (literally copy-word), the specialized words that are not Lojban primitives or natural compounds, and are therefore borrowed from other languages.

4.4. gismu

The gismu, or Lojban root words, are those brivla representing concepts most basic to the language. The gismu were chosen for various reasons: some represent concepts that are very familiar and basic; some represent concepts that are frequently used in other languages; some were added because they would be helpful in constructing more complex words; some because they represent fundamental Lojban concepts (like cmavo and gismu themselves).

The gismu do not represent any sort of systematic partitioning of semantic space. Some gismu may be superfluous, or appear for historical reasons: the gismu list was being collected for almost 35 years and was only weeded out once. Instead, the intention is that the gismu blanket semantic space: they make it possible to talk about the entire range of human concerns.

There are about 1350 gismu. In learning Lojban, you need only to learn most of these gismu and their combining forms (known as rafsi) as well as perhaps 200 major cmavo, and you will be able to communicate effectively in the language. This may sound like a lot, but it is a small number compared to the vocabulary needed for similar communications in other languages.

All gismu have very strong form restrictions. Using the conventions defined in Section 4.1 , all gismu are of the forms CVC/CV or CCVCV. They must meet the rules for all brivla given in Section 4.3 ; furthermore, they:

  1. always have five letters;

  2. always start with a consonant and end with a single vowel;

  3. always contain exactly one consonant pair, which is a permissible initial pair (CC) if it's at the beginning of the gismu, but otherwise only has to be a permissible pair (C/C);

  4. are always stressed on the first syllable (since that is penultimate).

The five letter length distinguishes gismu from lujvo and fu'ivla. In addition, no gismu contains '.

With the exception of five special brivla variables, broda , brode , brodi , brodo , and brodu , no two gismu differ only in the final vowel. Furthermore, the set of gismu was specifically designed to reduce the likelihood that two similar sounding gismu could be confused. For example, because gismu is in the set of gismu, kismu , xismu , gicmu , gizmu , and gisnu cannot be.

Almost all Lojban gismu are constructed from pieces of words drawn from other languages, specifically Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, the six most widely spoken natural languages. For a given concept, words in the six languages that represent that concept were written in Lojban phonetics. Then a gismu was selected to maximize the recognizability of the Lojban word for speakers of the six languages by weighting the inclusion of the sounds drawn from each language by the number of speakers of that language. See Section 4.14 for a full explanation of the algorithm.

Here are a few examples of gismu, with rough English equivalents (not definitions):

Example 4.11. 

creka

shirt


Example 4.12. 

lijda

religion


Example 4.13. 

blanu

blue


Example 4.14. 

mamta

mother


Example 4.15. 

cukta

book


Example 4.16. 

patfu

father


Example 4.17. 

nanmu

man


Example 4.18. 

ninmu

woman


A small number of gismu were formed differently; see Section 4.15 for a list.

4.5. lujvo

When specifying a concept that is not found among the gismu (or, more specifically, when the relevant gismu seems too general in meaning), a Lojbanist generally attempts to express the concept as a tanru. Lojban tanru are an elaboration of the concept of metaphor used in English. In Lojban, any brivla can be used to modify another brivla. The first of the pair modifies the second. This modification is usually restrictive – the modifying brivla reduces the broader sense of the modified brivla to form a more narrow, concrete, or specific concept. Modifying brivla may thus be seen as acting like English adverbs or adjectives. For example,

Example 4.19. 

skami pilno


is the tanru which expresses the concept of computer user.

The simplest Lojban tanru are pairings of two concepts or ideas. Such tanru take two simpler ideas that can be represented by gismu and combine them into a single more complex idea. Two-part tanru may then be recombined in pairs with other tanru, or with individual gismu, to form more complex or more specific ideas, and so on.

The meaning of a tanru is usually at least partly ambiguous: skami pilno could refer to a computer that is a user, or to a user of computers. There are a variety of ways that the modifier component can be related to the modified component. It is also possible to use cmavo within tanru to provide variations (or to prevent ambiguities) of meaning.

Making tanru is essentially a poetic or creative act, not a science. While the syntax expressing the grouping relationships within tanru is unambiguous, tanru are still semantically ambiguous, since the rules defining the relationships between the gismu are flexible. The process of devising a new tanru is dealt with in detail in Chapter 5.

To express a simple tanru, simply say the component gismu together. Thus the binary metaphor big boat becomes the tanru

Example 4.20. 

barda bloti


representing roughly the same concept as the English word ship.

The binary metaphor father mother can refer to a paternal grandmother ( a father-ly type of mother), while mother father can refer to a maternal grandfather ( a mother-ly type of father). In Lojban, these become the tanru

Example 4.21. 

patfu mamta


and

Example 4.22. 

mamta patfu


respectively.

The possibility of semantic ambiguity can easily be seen in the last case. To interpret Example 4.22 , the listener must determine what type of motherliness pertains to the father being referred to. In an appropriate context, mamta patfu could mean not grandfather but simply father with some motherly attributes , depending on the culture. If absolute clarity is required, there are ways to expand upon and explain the exact interrelationship between the components; but such detail is usually not needed.

When a concept expressed in a tanru proves useful, or is frequently expressed, it is desirable to choose one of the possible meanings of the tanru and assign it to a new brivla. For Example 4.19 , we would probably choose user of computers , and form the new word

Example 4.23. 

sampli


Such a brivla, built from the rafsi which represent its component words, is called a lujvo. Another example, corresponding to the tanru of Example 4.20 , would be:

Example 4.24. 

bralo'i

big-boat

ship


The lujvo representing a given tanru is built from units representing the component gismu. These units are called rafsi in Lojban. Each rafsi represents only one gismu. The rafsi are attached together in the order of the words in the tanru, occasionally inserting so-called hyphen letters to ensure that the pieces stick together as a single word and cannot accidentally be broken apart into cmavo, gismu, or other word forms. As a result, each lujvo can be readily and accurately recognized, allowing a listener to pick out the word from a string of spoken Lojban, and if necessary, unambiguously decompose the word to a unique source tanru, thus providing a strong clue to its meaning.

The lujvo that can be built from the tanru mamta patfu in Example 4.22 is

Example 4.25. 

mampa'u


which refers specifically to the concept maternal grandfather. The two gismu that constitute the tanru are represented in mampa'u by the rafsi mam- and -pa'u , respectively; these two rafsi are then concatenated together to form mampa'u.

Like gismu, lujvo have only one meaning. When a lujvo is formally entered into a dictionary of the language, a specific definition will be assigned based on one particular interrelationship between the terms. (See Chapter 12 for how this has been done.) Unlike gismu, lujvo may have more than one form. This is because there is no difference in meaning between the various rafsi for a gismu when they are used to build a lujvo. A long rafsi may be used, especially in noisy environments, in place of a short rafsi; the result is considered the same lujvo, even though the word is spelled and pronounced differently. Thus the word brivla , built from the tanru bridi valsi , is the same lujvo as brivalsi , bridyvla , and bridyvalsi , each of which uses a different combination of rafsi.

When assembling rafsi together into lujvo, the rules for valid brivla must be followed: a consonant cluster must occur in the first five letters (excluding y and '), and the lujvo must end in a vowel.

A y (which is ignored in determining stress or consonant clusters) is inserted in the middle of the consonant cluster to glue the word together when the resulting cluster is either not permissible or the word is likely to break up. There are specific rules describing these conditions, detailed in Section 4.6.

An r (in some cases, an n) is inserted when a CVV-form rafsi attaches to the beginning of a lujvo in such a way that there is no consonant cluster. For example, in the lujvo

Example 4.26. 

soirsai

from sonci sanmi

soldier meal

field rations


the rafsi soi- and -sai are joined, with the additional r making up the rs consonant pair needed to make the word a brivla. Without the r , the word would break up into soi sai , two cmavo. The pair of cmavo have no relation to their rafsi lookalikes; they will either be ungrammatical (as in this case), or will express a different meaning from what was intended.

Learning rafsi and the rules for assembling them into lujvo is clearly seen to be necessary for fully using the potential Lojban vocabulary.

Most important, it is possible to invent new lujvo while you speak or write in order to represent a new or unfamiliar concept, one for which you do not know any existing Lojban word. As long as you follow the rules for building these compounds, there is a good chance that you will be understood without explanation.

4.6. rafsi

Every gismu has from two to five rafsi, each of a different form, but each such rafsi represents only one gismu. It is valid to use any of the rafsi forms in building lujvo – whichever the reader or listener will most easily understand, or whichever is most pleasing – subject to the rules of lujvo making. There is a scoring algorithm which is intended to determine which of the possible and legal lujvo forms will be the standard dictionary form (see Section 4.12).

Each gismu always has at least two rafsi forms; one is the gismu itself (used only at the end of a lujvo), and one is the gismu without its final vowel (used only at the beginning or middle of a lujvo). These forms are represented as CVC/CV or CCVCV (called the 5-letter rafsi), and CVC/C or CCVC (called the 4-letter rafsi) respectively. The dashes in these rafsi form representations show where other rafsi may be attached to form a valid lujvo. When lujvo are formed only from 4-letter and 5-letter rafsi, known collectively as long rafsi , they are called unreduced lujvo.

Some examples of unreduced lujvo forms are:

Example 4.27. 

mamtypatfu

from mamta patfu

mother father or maternal grandfather


Example 4.28. 

lerfyliste

from lerfu liste

letter list or a list of letters

(letters of the alphabet)


Example 4.29. 

nancyprali

from nanca prali

year profit or annual profit


Example 4.30. 

prunyplipe

from pruni plipe

elastic (springy) leap or spring (the verb)


Example 4.31. 

vancysanmi

from vanci sanmi

evening meal or supper


In addition to these two forms, each gismu may have up to three additional short rafsi, three letters long. All short rafsi have one of the forms CVC, CCV, or CVV. The total number of rafsi forms that are assigned to a gismu depends on how useful the gismu is, or is presumed to be, in making lujvo, when compared to other gismu that could be assigned the rafsi.

For example, zmadu ( more than) has the two short rafsi zma and mau (in addition to its unreduced rafsi zmad and zmadu), because a vast number of lujvo have been created based on zmadu , corresponding in general to English comparative adjectives ending in -er such as whiter (Lojban labmau). On the other hand, bakri ( chalk) has no short rafsi and few lujvo.

There are at most one CVC-form, one CCV-form, and one CVV-form rafsi per gismu. In fact, only a tiny handful of gismu have both a CCV-form and a CVV-form rafsi assigned, and still fewer have all three forms of short rafsi. However, gismu with both a CVC-form and another short rafsi are fairly common, partly because more possible CVC-form rafsi exist. Yet CVC-form rafsi, even though they are fairly easy to remember, cannot be used at the end of a lujvo (because lujvo must end in vowels), so justifying the assignment of an additional short rafsi to many gismu.

The intention was to use the available rafsi space - the set of all possible short rafsi forms – in the most efficient way possible; the goal is to make the most-used lujvo as short as possible (thus maximizing the use of short rafsi), while keeping the rafsi very recognizable to anyone who knows the source gismu. For this reason, the letters in a rafsi have always been chosen from among the five letters of the corresponding gismu. As a result, there are a limited set of short rafsi available for assignment to each gismu. At most seven possible short rafsi are available for consideration (of which at most three can be used, as explained above).

Here are the only short rafsi forms that can possibly exist for gismu of the form CVC/CV, like sakli. The digits in the second column represent the gismu letters used to form the rafsi.

CVC 123 -sak-
CVC 124 -sal-
CVV 12'5 -sa'i-
CVV 125 -sai-
CCV 345 -kli-
CCV 132 -ska-

(The only actual short rafsi for sakli is -sal-.)

For gismu of the form CCVCV, like blaci , the only short rafsi forms that can exist are:

CVC 134 -bac-
CVC 234 -lac-
CVV 13'5 -ba'i-
CVV 135 -bai-
CVV 23'5 -la'i-
CVV 235 -lai-
CCV 123 -bla-

(In fact, blaci has none of these short rafsi; they are all assigned to other gismu. Lojban speakers are not free to reassign any of the rafsi; the tables shown here are to help understand how the rafsi were chosen in the first place.)

There are a few restrictions: a CVV-form rafsi without an apostrophe cannot exist unless the vowels make up one of the four diphthongs ai , ei , oi , or au ; and a CCV-form rafsi is possible only if the two consonants form a permissible initial consonant pair (see Section 4.1). Thus mamta , which has the same form as salci , can only have mam , mat , and ma'a as possible rafsi: in fact, only mam is assigned to it.

Some cmavo also have associated rafsi, usually CVC-form. For example, the ten common numerical digits, which are all CV form cmavo, each have a CVC-form rafsi formed by adding a consonant to the cmavo. Most cmavo that have rafsi are ones used in composing tanru.

The term for a lujvo made up solely of short rafsi is fully reduced lujvo. Here are some examples of fully reduced lujvo:

Example 4.32. 

cumfri

from cumki lifri

possible experience


Example 4.33. 

klezba

from klesi zbasu

category make


Example 4.34. 

kixta'a

from krixa tavla

cry-out talk


Example 4.35. 

sniju'o

from sinxa djuno

sign know


In addition, the unreduced forms in Example 4.27 and Example 4.28 may be fully reduced to:

Example 4.36. 

mampa'u

from mamta patfu

mother father or maternal grandfather


Example 4.37. 

lerste

from lerfu liste

letter list or a list of letters


As noted above, CVC-form rafsi cannot appear as the final rafsi in a lujvo, because all lujvo must end with one or two vowels. As a brivla, a lujvo must also contain a consonant cluster within the first five letters – this ensures that they cannot be mistaken for compound cmavo. Of course, all lujvo have at least six letters since they have two or more rafsi, each at least three letters long; hence they cannot be confused with gismu.

When attaching two rafsi together, it may be necessary to insert a hyphen letter. In Lojban, the term hyphen always refers to a letter, either the vowel y or one of the consonants r and n. (The letter l can also be a hyphen, but is not used as one in lujvo.)

The y-hyphen is used after a CVC-form rafsi when joining it with the following rafsi could result in an impermissible consonant pair, or when the resulting lujvo could fall apart into two or more words (either cmavo or gismu).

Thus, the tanru pante tavla ( protest talk) cannot produce the lujvo patta'a , because tt is not a permissible consonant pair; the lujvo must be patyta'a. Similarly, the tanru mudri siclu ( wooden whistle) cannot form the lujvo mudsiclu ; instead, mudysiclu must be used. (Remember that y is not counted in determining whether the first five letters of a brivla contain a consonant cluster: this is why.)

The y-hyphen is also used to attach a 4-letter rafsi, formed by dropping the final vowel of a gismu, to the following rafsi. (This procedure was shown, but not explained, in Example 4.27 to Example 4.31.)

The lujvo forms zunlyjamfu , zunlyjma , zuljamfu , and zuljma are all legitimate and equivalent forms made from the tanru zunle jamfu ( left foot). Of these, zuljma is the preferred one since it is the shortest; it thus is likely to be the form listed in a Lojban dictionary.

The r-hyphen and its close relative, the n-hyphen, are used in lujvo only after CVV-form rafsi. A hyphen is always required in a two-part lujvo of the form CVV-CVV, since otherwise there would be no consonant cluster.

An r-hyphen or n-hyphen is also required after the CVV-form rafsi of any lujvo of the form CVV-CVC/CV or CVV-CCVCV since it would otherwise fall apart into a CVV-form cmavo and a gismu. In any lujvo with more than two parts, a CVV-form rafsi in the initial position must always be followed by a hyphen. If the hyphen were to be omitted, the supposed lujvo could be broken into smaller words without the hyphen: because the CVV-form rafsi would be interpreted as a cmavo, and the remainder of the word as a valid lujvo that is one rafsi shorter.

An n-hyphen is only used in place of an r-hyphen when the following rafsi begins with r. For example, the tanru rokci renro ( rock throw) cannot be expressed as ro'ire'o (which breaks up into two cmavo), nor can it be ro'irre'o (which has an impermissible double consonant); the n-hyphen is required, and the correct form of the hyphenated lujvo is ro'inre'o. The same lujvo could also be expressed without hyphenation as rokre'o.

There is also a different way of building lujvo, or rather phrases which are grammatically and semantically equivalent to lujvo. You can make a phrase containing any desired words, joining each pair of them with the special cmavo zei. Thus,

Example 4.38. 

bridi zei valsi


is the exact equivalent of brivla (but not necessarily the same as the underlying tanru bridi valsi , which could have other meanings). Using zei is the only way to get a cmavo lacking a rafsi, a cmevla, or a fu'ivla into a lujvo:

Example 4.39. 

xy. zei kantu

X ray


Example 4.40. 

kulnr,farsi zei lolgai

Farsi floor-cover

Persian rug


Example 4.41. 

na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. livgyterbilma

non-A, non-B liver-disease

non-A, non-B hepatitis


Example 4.42. 

.cerman. zei jamkarce

Sherman war-car

Sherman tank


Example 4.41 is particularly noteworthy because the phrase that would be produced by removing the zei s from it doesn't end with a brivla, and in fact is not even grammatical. As written, the example is a tanru with two components, but by adding a zei between by. and livgyterbilma to produce

Example 4.43. 

na'e zei .a zei na'e zei by. zei livgyterbilma

non-A-non-B-hepatitis


the whole phrase would become a single lujvo. The longer lujvo of Example 4.43 may be preferable, because its place structure can be built from that of bilma , whereas the place structure of a lujvo without a brivla must be constructed ad hoc.

Note that rafsi may not be used in zei phrases, because they are not words. CVV rafsi look like words (specifically cmavo) but there can be no confusion between the two uses of the same letters, because cmavo appear only as separate words or in compound cmavo (which are really just a notation for writing separate but closely related words as if they were one); rafsi appear only as parts of lujvo and fu'ivla.

4.7. fu'ivla

The use of tanru or lujvo is not always appropriate for very concrete or specific terms (e.g. brie or cobra), or for jargon words specialized to a narrow field (e.g. quark , integral , or iambic pentameter). These words are in effect names for concepts, and the names were invented by speakers of another language. The vast majority of words referring to plants, animals, foods, and scientific terminology cannot be easily expressed as tanru. They thus must be borrowed (actually copied) into Lojban from the original language.

There are four stages of borrowing in Lojban, as words become more and more modified (but shorter and easier to use). Stage 1 is the use of a foreign name quoted with the cmavo la'o (explained in full in Section 19.10):

Example 4.44. 

me la'o ly. spaghetti .ly.


is a predicate with the place structure x1 is a quantity of spaghetti.

Stage 2 involves changing the foreign name to a Lojbanized name, as explained in Section 4.8:

Example 4.45. 

me la .spagetis.


One of these expedients is often quite sufficient when you need a word quickly in conversation. (This can make it easier to get by when you do not yet have full command of the Lojban vocabulary, provided you are talking to someone who will recognize the borrowing.)

Where a little more universality is desired, the word to be borrowed must be Lojbanized into one of several permitted forms. A rafsi is then usually attached to the beginning of the Lojbanized form, using a hyphen to ensure that the resulting word doesn't fall apart.

The rafsi categorizes or limits the meaning of the fu'ivla; otherwise a word having several different jargon meanings in other languages would require the word-inventor to choose which meaning should be assigned to the fu'ivla, since fu'ivla (like other brivla) are not permitted to have more than one definition. Such a Stage 3 borrowing is the most common kind of fu'ivla.

Finally, Stage 4 fu'ivla do not have any rafsi classifier, and are used where a fu'ivla has become so common or so important that it must be made as short as possible. (See Section 4.16 for a proposal concerning Stage 4 fu'ivla.)

The form of a fu'ivla reliably distinguishes it from both the gismu and the cmavo. Like cultural gismu, fu'ivla are generally based on a word from a single non-Lojban language. The word is borrowed (actually copied , hence the Lojban tanru fukpi valsi) from the other language and Lojbanized – the phonemes are converted to their closest Lojban equivalent and modifications are made as necessary to make the word a legitimate Lojban fu'ivla-form word. All fu'ivla:

  1. must contain a consonant cluster in the first five letters of the word; if this consonant cluster is at the beginning, it must either be a permissible initial consonant pair, or a longer cluster such that each pair of adjacent consonants in the cluster is a permissible initial consonant pair: spraile is acceptable, but not ktraile or trkaile ;

  2. must end in one or more vowels;

  3. must not be gismu or lujvo, or any combination of cmavo, gismu, and lujvo; furthermore, a fu'ivla with a CV cmavo joined to the front of it must not have the form of a lujvo (the so-called slinku'i test , not discussed further in this book);

  4. cannot contain y , although they may contain syllabic pronunciations of Lojban consonants;

  5. like other brivla, are stressed on the penultimate syllable.

Note that consonant triples or larger clusters that are not at the beginning of a fu'ivla can be quite flexible, as long as all consonant pairs are permissible. There is no need to restrict fu'ivla clusters to permissible initial pairs except at the beginning.

This is a fairly liberal definition and allows quite a lot of possibilities within fu'ivla space. Stage 3 fu'ivla can be made easily on the fly, as lujvo can, because the procedure for forming them always guarantees a word that cannot violate any of the rules. Stage 4 fu'ivla require running tests that are not simple to characterize or perform, and should be made only after deliberation and by someone knowledgeable about all the considerations that apply.

Here is a simple and reliable procedure for making a non-Lojban word into a valid Stage 3 fu'ivla:

  1. Eliminate all double consonants and silent letters.

  2. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents. Lojban y , however, may not be used in any fu'ivla.

  3. If the last letter is not a vowel, modify the ending so that the word ends in a vowel, either by removing a final consonant or by adding a suggestively chosen final vowel.

  4. If the first letter is not a consonant, modify the beginning so that the word begins with a consonant, either by removing an initial vowel or adding a suggestively chosen initial consonant.

  5. Prefix the result of steps 1-4 with a 4-letter rafsi that categorizes the fu'ivla into a topic area. It is only safe to use a 4-letter rafsi; short rafsi sometimes produce invalid fu'ivla. Hyphenate the rafsi to the rest of the fu'ivla with an r-hyphen; if that would produce a double r , use an n-hyphen instead; if the rafsi ends in r and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with n (or vice versa), or if the rafsi ends in "r" and the rest of the fu'ivla begins with "tc", "ts", "dj", or "dz" (using "n" would result in a phonotactically impermissible cluster), use an l-hyphen. (This is the only use of l-hyphen in Lojban.)

    Alternatively, if a CVC-form short rafsi is available it can be used instead of the long rafsi.

  6. Remember that the stress necessarily appears on the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable.

In this section, the hyphen is set off with commas in the examples, but these commas are not required in writing, and the hyphen need not be pronounced as a separate syllable.

Here are a few examples:

Example 4.46. 

spaghetti (from English or Italian)

spageti (Lojbanize)

cidj,r,spageti (prefix long rafsi)

dja,r,spageti (prefix short rafsi)


where cidj- is the 4-letter rafsi for cidja , the Lojban gismu for food , thus categorizing cidjrspageti as a kind of food. The form with the short rafsi happens to work, but such good fortune cannot be relied on: in any event, it means the same thing.

Example 4.47. 

Acer (the scientific name of maple trees)

acer (Lojbanize)

xaceru (add initial consonant and final vowel)

tric,r,xaceru (prefix rafsi)

ric,r,xaceru (prefix short rafsi)


where tric- and ric- are rafsi for tricu , the gismu for tree. Note that by the same principles, maple sugar could get the fu'ivla saktrxaceru , or could be represented by the tanru tricrxaceru sakta. Technically, ricrxaceru and tricrxaceru are distinct fu'ivla, but they would surely be given the same meanings if both happened to be in use.

Example 4.48. 

brie (from French)

bri (Lojbanize)

cirl,r,bri (prefix rafsi)


where cirl- represents cirla ( cheese).

Example 4.49. 

cobra

kobra (Lojbanize)

sinc,r,kobra (prefix rafsi)


where sinc- represents since ( snake).

Example 4.50. 

quark

kuark (Lojbanize)

kuarka (add final vowel)

sask,r,kuarka (prefix rafsi)


where sask- represents saske ( science). Note the extra vowel a added to the end of the word, and the diphthong ua , which never appears in gismu or lujvo, but may appear in fu'ivla.

Example 4.51. 

자모 (from Korean)

djamo (Lojbanize)

lerf,r,djamo (prefix rafsi)

ler,l,djamo (prefix rafsi)


where ler- represents lerfu ( letter). Note the l-hyphen in "lerldjamo", since "lerndjamo" contains the forbidden cluster "ndj".

The use of the prefix helps distinguish among the many possible meanings of the borrowed word, depending on the field. As it happens, spageti and kuarka are valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, but xaceru looks like a compound cmavo, and kobra like a gismu.

For another example, integral has a specific meaning to a mathematician. But the Lojban fu'ivla .integrale , which is a valid Stage 4 fu'ivla, does not convey that mathematical sense to a non-mathematical listener, even one with an English-speaking background; its source – the English word integral – has various other specialized meanings in other fields.

Left uncontrolled, .integrale almost certainly would eventually come to mean the same collection of loosely related concepts that English associates with integral , with only the context to indicate (possibly) that the mathematical term is meant.

The prefix method would render the mathematical concept as cmacrntegrale , if the i of .integrale is removed, or something like cmacrnintegrale , if a new consonant is added to the beginning; cmac- is the rafsi for cmaci ( mathematics). The architectural sense of integral might be conveyed with dinjrnintegrale or tarmrnintegrale , where dinju and tarmi mean building and form respectively.

Here are some fu'ivla representing cultures and related things, shown with more than one rafsi prefix:

Example 4.52. 

bang,r,blgaria

Bulgarian (in language)


Example 4.53. 

kuln,r,blgaria

Bulgarian (in culture)


Example 4.54. 

gugd,r,blgaria

Bulgaria (the country)


Example 4.55. 

bang,r,kore,a

Korean (the language)


Example 4.56. 

kuln,r,kore,a

Korean (the culture)


Note the commas in Example 4.55 and Example 4.56 , used because ea is not a valid diphthong in Lojban. Arguably, some form of the native name Chosen should have been used instead of the internationally known Korea ; this is a recurring problem in all borrowings. In general, it is better to use the native name unless using it will severely impede understanding: Navajo is far more widely known than Dine'e.

4.8. cmevla

Lojbanized names, called cmevla , are very much like their counterparts in other languages. They are labels applied to things (or people) to stand for them in descriptions or in direct address. They may convey meaning in themselves, but do not necessarily do so.

Because names are often highly personal and individual, Lojban attempts to allow native language names to be used with a minimum of modification. The requirement that the Lojban speech stream be unambiguously analyzable, however, means that most names must be modified somewhat when they are Lojbanized. Here are a few examples of English names and possible Lojban equivalents:

Example 4.57. 

.djim.

Jim


Example 4.58. 

.djein.

Jane


Example 4.59. 

.arnold.

Arnold


Example 4.60. 

.pit.

Pete


Example 4.61. 

.katrinas.

Katrina


Example 4.62. 

.kat,r,in.

Catherine


(Note that syllabic r is skipped in determining the stressed syllable, so Example 4.62 is stressed on the ka.)

Example 4.63. 

.katis.

Cathy


Example 4.64. 

.keit.

Kate


Cmevla may have almost any form, but always end in a consonant, and are followed by a pause. They are penultimately stressed, unless unusual stress is marked with capitalization. A cmevla may have multiple parts, each ending with a consonant and pause, or the parts may be combined into a single word with no pause. For example,

Example 4.65. 

.djan. .braun.


and

Example 4.66. 

.djanbraun.


are both valid Lojbanizations of John Brown.

The final arbiter of the correct form of a name is the person doing the naming, although most cultures grant people the right to determine how they want their own name to be spelled and pronounced. The English name Mary can thus be Lojbanized as .meris. , .maris. , .meiris. , .merix. , or even .marys.. The last alternative is not pronounced much like its English equivalent, but may be desirable to someone who values spelling over pronunciation. The final consonant need not be an s ; there must, however, be some Lojban consonant at the end.

Lojban cmevla are identifiable as word forms by the following characteristics:

  1. They must end in one or more consonants. There are no rules about how many consonants may appear in a cluster in cmevla, provided that each consonant pair (whether standing by itself, or as part of a larger cluster) is a permissible pair.

  2. They may contain the letter y as a normal, non-hyphenating vowel. They are the only kind of Lojban word that may contain the two diphthongs iy and uy.

  3. They are always surrounded in speech by pauses, one right before the first consonant, and the other one right after the final consonant, both being written as ..

  4. They may be stressed on any syllable; if this syllable is not the penultimate one, it must be capitalized when writing. Neither names nor words that begin sentences are capitalized in Lojban, so this is the only use of capital letters.

cmevla meeting these criteria may be invented, Lojbanized from names in other languages, or formed by appending a consonant onto a cmavo, a gismu, a fu'ivla or a lujvo. Some cmevla built from Lojban words are:

Example 4.67. 

.pav.

the One

from the cmavo pa , with rafsi pav , meaning one


Example 4.68. 

.sol.

the Sun

from the gismu solri , meaning solar , or actually pertaining to the Sun


Example 4.69. 

.ralj.

Chief (as a title)

from the gismu ralju , meaning principal.


Example 4.70. 

.nol.

Lord/Lady

from the gismu nobli , with rafsi nol , meaning noble.


To Lojbanize a name from the various natural languages, apply the following rules:

  1. Eliminate double consonants and silent letters.

  2. Add a final s or n (or some other consonant that sounds good) if the name ends in a vowel.

  3. Convert all sounds to their closest Lojban equivalents.

  4. If possible and acceptable, shift the stress to the penultimate (next-to-the-last) syllable. Use commas and capitalization in written Lojban when it is necessary to preserve non-standard syllabication or stress. Do not capitalize names otherwise.

  5. If the name contains an impermissible consonant pair, insert a vowel between the consonants: y is recommended.

There are some additional rules for Lojbanizing the scientific names (technically known as Linnaean binomials after their inventor) which are internationally applied to each species of animal or plant. Where precision is essential, these names need not be Lojbanized, but can be directly inserted into Lojban text using the cmavo la'o , explained in Section 19.10. Using this cmavo makes the already lengthy Latinized names at least four syllables longer, however, and leaves the pronunciation in doubt. The following suggestions, though incomplete, will assist in converting Linnaean binomals to valid Lojban names. They can also help to create fu'ivla based on Linnaean binomials or other words of the international scientific vocabulary. The term back vowel in the following list refers to any of the letters a , o , or u ; the term front vowel correspondingly refers to any of the letters e , i , or y.

  1. Change double consonants other than cc to single consonants.

  2. Change cc before a front vowel to kc , but otherwise to k.

  3. Change c before a back vowel and final c to k.

  4. Change ng before a consonant (other than h) and final ng to n.

  5. Change x to z initially, but otherwise to ks.

  6. Change pn to n initially.

  7. Change final ie and ii to i.

  8. Make the following idiosyncratic substitutions:

    aa a
    ae e
    ch k
    ee i
    eigh ei
    ew u
    igh ai
    oo u
    ou u
    ow au
    ph f
    q k
    sc sk
    w u
    y i

    However, the diphthong substitutions should not be done if the two vowels are in two different syllables.

  9. Change h between two vowels to ' , but otherwise remove it completely. If preservation of the h seems essential, change it to x instead.

  10. Place ' between any remaining vowel pairs that do not form Lojban diphthongs.

Some further examples of Lojbanized names are:

English Mary .meris. or .meiris.
English Smith .smit.
English Jones .djonz.
English John .djan. or .jan. (American) or .djon. or .jon. (British)
English Alice .alis.
English Elise .eLIS.
English Johnson .djansn.
English William .uiliam. or .uil,iam.
English Brown .braun.
English Charles .tcarlz.
French Charles .carl.
French De Gaulle .dyGOL.
German Heinrich .xainrix.
Spanish Joaquin .xuaKIN.
Russian Svetlana .sfietlanys.
Russian Khrushchev .xrucTCOF.
Hindi Krishna .kricnas.
Polish Lech Walesa .lex. .va,uensas.
Spanish Don Quixote .don. .kicotes. or modern Spanish: .don. .kixotes. or Mexican dialect: .don. .ki'otes.
Chinese Mao Zedong .maudzydyn.
Japanese Fujiko .fudjikos. or .fujikos.

4.9. Rules for inserting pauses

Summarized in one place, here are the rules for inserting pauses between Lojban words:

  1. Any two words may have a pause between them; it is always illegal to pause in the middle of a word, because that breaks up the word into two words.

  2. Every word ending in a consonant must be surrounded by pauses. Necessarily, all such words are cmevla.

  3. Every word beginning with a vowel must be preceded by a pause. Such words are either cmavo, fu'ivla, or cmevla; all gismu and lujvo begin with consonants.

  4. Every cmevla must be surrounded by pauses.

  5. If the last syllable of a word bears the stress, and a brivla follows, the two must be separated by a pause, to prevent confusion with the primary stress of the brivla. In this case, the first word must be either a cmavo or a cmevla with unusual stress (which already ends with a pause, of course).

  6. A cmavo of the form Cy must be followed by a pause unless another Cy -form cmavo follows.

  7. When non-Lojban text is embedded in Lojban, it must be preceded and followed by pauses. (How to embed non-Lojban text is explained in Section 19.10.)

4.10. Considerations for making lujvo

Given a tanru which expresses an idea to be used frequently, it can be turned into a lujvo by following the lujvo-making algorithm which is given in Section 4.11.

In building a lujvo, the first step is to replace each gismu with a rafsi that uniquely represents that gismu. These rafsi are then attached together by fixed rules that allow the resulting compound to be recognized as a single word and to be analyzed in only one way.

There are three other complications; only one is serious.

The first is that there is usually more than one rafsi that can be used for each gismu. The one to be used is simply whichever one sounds or looks best to the speaker or writer. There are usually many valid combinations of possible rafsi. They all are equally valid, and all of them mean exactly the same thing. (The scoring algorithm given in Section 4.12 is used to choose the standard form of the lujvo – the version which would be entered into a dictionary.)

The second complication is the serious one. Remember that a tanru is ambiguous – it has several possible meanings. A lujvo, or at least one that would be put into the dictionary, has just a single meaning. Like a gismu, a lujvo is a predicate which encompasses one area of the semantic universe, with one set of places. Hopefully the meaning chosen is the most useful of the possible semantic spaces. A possible source of linguistic drift in Lojban is that as Lojbanic society evolves, the concept that seems the most useful one may change.

You must also be aware of the possibility of some prior meaning of a new lujvo, especially if you are writing for posterity. If a lujvo is invented which involves the same tanru as one that is in the dictionary, and is assigned a different meaning (or even just a different place structure), linguistic drift results. This isn't necessarily bad. Every natural language does it. But in communication, when you use a meaning different from the dictionary definition, someone else may use the dictionary and therefore misunderstand you. You can use the cmavo za'e (explained in Section 19.11) before a newly coined lujvo to indicate that it may have a non-dictionary meaning.

The essential nature of human communication is that if the listener understands, then all is well. Let this be the ultimate guideline for choosing meanings and place structures for invented lujvo.

The third complication is also simple, but tends to scare new Lojbanists with its implications. It is based on Zipf's Law, which says that the length of words is inversely proportional to their usage. The shortest words are those which are used more; the longest ones are used less. Conversely, commonly used concepts will be tend to be abbreviated. In English, we have abbreviations and acronyms and jargon, all of which represent complex ideas that are used often by small groups of people, so they shortened them to convey more information more rapidly.

Therefore, given a complicated tanru with grouping markers, abstraction markers, and other cmavo in it to make it syntactically unambiguous, the psychological basis of Zipf's Law may compel the lujvo-maker to drop some of the cmavo to make a shorter (technically incorrect) tanru, and then use that tanru to make the lujvo.

This doesn't lead to ambiguity, as it might seem to. A given lujvo still has exactly one meaning and place structure. It is just that more than one tanru is competing for the same lujvo. But more than one meaning for the tanru was already competing for the right to define the meaning of the lujvo. Someone has to use judgment in deciding which one meaning is to be chosen over the others.

If the lujvo made by a shorter form of tanru is in use, or is likely to be useful for another meaning, the decider then retains one or more of the cmavo, preferably ones that set this meaning apart from the shorter form meaning that is used or anticipated. As a rule, therefore, the shorter lujvo will be used for a more general concept, possibly even instead of a more frequent word. If both words are needed, the simpler one should be shorter. It is easier to add a cmavo to clarify the meaning of the more complex term than it is to find a good alternate tanru for the simpler term.

And of course, we have to consider the listener. On hearing an unknown word, the listener will decompose it and get a tanru that makes no sense or the wrong sense for the context. If the listener realizes that the grouping operators may have been dropped out, he or she may try alternate groupings, or try inserting an abstraction operator if that seems plausible. (The grouping of tanru is explained in Chapter 5 ; abstraction is explained in Chapter 11.) Plausibility is the key to learning new ideas and to evaluating unfamiliar lujvo.

4.11. The lujvo-making algorithm

The following is the current algorithm for generating Lojban lujvo given a known tanru and a complete list of gismu and their assigned rafsi. The algorithm was designed by Bob LeChevalier and Dr. James Cooke Brown for computer program implementation. It was modified in 1989 with the assistance of Nora LeChevalier, who detected a flaw in the original tosmabru test.

Given a tanru that is to be made into a lujvo:

  1. Choose a 3-letter or 4-letter rafsi for each of the gismu and cmavo in the tanru except the last.

  2. Choose a 3-letter (CVV-form or CCV-form) or 5-letter rafsi for the final gismu in the tanru.

  3. Join the resulting string of rafsi, initially without hyphens.

  4. Add hyphen letters where necessary. It is illegal to add a hyphen at a place that is not required by this algorithm. Right-to-left tests are recommended, for reasons discussed below.

    1. If there are more than two words in the tanru, put an r-hyphen (or an n-hyphen) after the first rafsi if it is CVV-form. If there are exactly two words, then put an r-hyphen (or an n-hyphen) between the two rafsi if the first rafsi is CVV-form, unless the second rafsi is CCV-form (for example, saicli requires no hyphen). Use an r-hyphen unless the letter after the hyphen is r , in which case use an n-hyphen. Never use an n-hyphen unless it is required.

    2. Put a y-hyphen between the consonants of any impermissible consonant pair. This will always appear between rafsi.

    3. Put a y-hyphen after any 4-letter rafsi form.

  5. Test all forms with one or more initial CVC-form rafsi – with the pattern CVC ... CVC + X – for tosmabru failure. X must either be a CVCCV long rafsi that happens to have a permissible initial pair as the consonant cluster, or is something which has caused a y-hyphen to be installed between the previous CVC and itself by one of the above rules.

    The test is as follows:

    1. Examine all the C/C consonant pairs up to the first y-hyphen, or up to the end of the word in case there are no y-hyphens.

      These consonant pairs are called "joints”.

    2. If all of those joints are permissible initials, then the trial word will break up into a cmavo and a shorter brivla. If not, the word will not break up, and no further hyphens are needed.

    3. Install a y-hyphen at the first such joint.

Note that the tosmabru test implies that the algorithm will be more efficient if rafsi junctures are tested for required hyphens from right to left, instead of from left to right; when the test is required, it cannot be completed until hyphenation to the right has been determined.

4.12. The lujvo scoring algorithm

This algorithm was devised by Bob and Nora LeChevalier in 1989. It is not the only possible algorithm, but it usually gives a choice that people find preferable. The algorithm may be changed in the future. The lowest-scoring variant will usually be the dictionary form of the lujvo. (In previous versions, it was the highest-scoring variant.)

  1. Count the total number of letters, including hyphens and apostrophes; call it L.

  2. Count the number of apostrophes; call it A.

  3. Count the number of y- , r- , and n-hyphens; call it H.

  4. For each rafsi, find the value in the following table. Sum this value over all rafsi; call it R :

    CVC/CV (final) ( -sarji) 1
    CVC/C ( -sarj-) 2
    CCVCV (final) ( -zbasu) 3
    CCVC ( -zbas-) 4
    CVC ( -nun-) 5
    CVV with an apostrophe ( -ta'u-) 6
    CCV ( -zba-) 7
    CVV with no apostrophe ( -sai-) 8

  5. Count the number of vowels, not including y ; call it V.

The score is then:

(1000 * L) - (500 * A) + (100 * H) - (10 * R) - V

In case of ties, there is no preference. This should be rare. Note that the algorithm essentially encodes a hierarchy of priorities: short words are preferred (counting apostrophes as half a letter), then words with fewer hyphens, words with more pleasing rafsi (this judgment is subjective), and finally words with more vowels are chosen. Each decision principle is applied in turn if the ones before it have failed to choose; it is possible that a lower-ranked principle might dominate a higher-ranked one if it is ten times better than the alternative.

Here are some lujvo with their scores (not necessarily the lowest scoring forms for these lujvo, nor even necessarily sensible lujvo):

Example 4.71. 

zbasai

zba + sai

(1000 * 6) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 0) - (10 * 15) - 3 = 5847


Example 4.72. 

nunynau

nun + y + nau

(1000 * 7) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 13) - 3 = 6967


Example 4.73. 

sairzbata'u

sai + r + zba + ta'u

(1000 * 11) - (500 * 1) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 21) - 5 = 10385


Example 4.74. 

zbazbasysarji

zba + zbas + y + sarji

(1000 * 13) - (500 * 0) + (100 * 1) - (10 * 12) - 4 = 12976


4.13. lujvo-making examples

This section contains examples of making and scoring lujvo. First, we will start with the tanru gerku zdani ( dog house) and construct a lujvo meaning doghouse , that is, a house where a dog lives. We will use a brute-force application of the algorithm in Section 4.12 , using every possible rafsi.

The rafsi for gerku are:

-ger- , -ge'u- , -gerk- , -gerku

The rafsi for zdani are:

-zda- , -zdan- , -zdani.

Step 1 of the algorithm directs us to use -ger- , -ge'u- and -gerk- as possible rafsi for gerku ; Step 2 directs us to use -zda- and -zdani as possible rafsi for zdani. The six possible forms of the lujvo are then:

ger -zda
ger -zdani
ge'u -zda
ge'u -zdani
gerk -zda
gerk -zdani

We must then insert appropriate hyphens in each case. The first two forms need no hyphenation: ge cannot fall off the front, because the following word would begin with rz , which is not a permissible initial consonant pair. So the lujvo forms are gerzda and gerzdani.

The third form, ge'u -zda , needs no hyphen, because even though the first rafsi is CVV, the second one is CCV, so there is a consonant cluster in the first five letters. So ge'uzda is this form of the lujvo.

The fourth form, ge'u-zdani , however, requires an r-hyphen; otherwise, the ge'u- part would fall off as a cmavo. So this form of the lujvo is ge'urzdani.

The last two forms require y-hyphens, as all 4-letter rafsi do, and so are gerkyzda and gerkyzdani respectively.

The scoring algorithm is heavily weighted in favor of short lujvo, so we might expect that gerzda would win. Its L score is 6, its A score is 0, its H score is 0, its R score is 12, and its V score is 3, for a final score of 5878. The other forms have scores of 7917, 6367, 9506, 8008, and 10047 respectively. Consequently, this lujvo would probably appear in the dictionary in the form gerzda.

For the next example, we will use the tanru bloti klesi ( boat class) presumably referring to the category (rowboat, motorboat, cruise liner) into which a boat falls. We will omit the long rafsi from the process, since lujvo containing long rafsi are almost never preferred by the scoring algorithm when there are short rafsi available.

The rafsi for bloti are -lot- , -blo- , and -lo'i- ; for klesi they are -kle- and -lei-. Both these gismu are among the handful which have both CVV-form and CCV-form rafsi, so there is an unusual number of possibilities available for a two-part tanru:

lotkle blokle lo'ikle
lotlei blolei lo'irlei

Only lo'irlei requires hyphenation (to avoid confusion with the cmavo sequence lo'i lei). All six forms are valid versions of the lujvo, as are the six further forms using long rafsi; however, the scoring algorithm produces the following results:

lotkle 5878
blokle 5858
lo'ikle 6367
lotlei 5867
blolei 5847
lo'irlei 7456

So the form blolei is preferred, but only by a tiny margin over blokle ; "lotlei" and "lotkle" are only slightly worse; lo'ikle suffers because of its apostrophe, and lo'irlei because of having both apostrophe and hyphen.

Our third example will result in forming both a lujvo and a cmevla from the tanru logji bangu girzu , or logical-language group in English. ( The Logical Language Group is the name of the publisher of this book and the organization for the promotion of Lojban.)

The available rafsi are -loj- and -logj- ; -ban- , -bau- , and -bang- ; and -gri- and -girzu , and (for cmevla purposes only) -gir- and -girz-. The resulting 12 lujvo possibilities are:

loj -ban -gri loj -bau -gri loj -bang -gri
logj -ban -gri logj -bau -gri logj -bang -gri
loj -ban -girzu loj -bau -girzu loj -bang -girzu
logj -ban -girzu logj -bau -girzu logj -bang -girzu

and the 12 cmevla possibilities are:

loj -ban -gir loj -bau -gir loj -bang -gir
logj -ban -gir logj -bau -gir logj -bang -gir
loj -ban -girz loj -bau -girz loj -bang -girz
logj -ban -girz logj -bau -girz logj -bang -girz

After hyphenation, we have:

lojbangri lojbaugri lojbangygri
logjybangri logjybaugri logjybangygri
lojbangirzu lojbaugirzu lojbangygirzu
logjybangirzu logjybaugirzu logjybangygirzu
lojbangir lojbaugir lojbangygir
logjybangir logjybaugir logjybangygir
lojbangirz lojbaugirz lojbangygirz
logjybangirz logjybaugirz logjybangygirz

The only fully reduced lujvo forms are lojbangri and lojbaugri , of which the latter has a slightly lower score: 8827 versus 8796, respectively. However, for the name of the organization, we chose to make sure the name of the language was embedded in it, and to use the clearer long-form rafsi for girzu , producing .lojbangirz.

Finally, here is a four-part lujvo with a cmavo in it, based on the tanru nakni ke cinse ctuca or male (sexual teacher). The ke cmavo ensures the interpretation teacher of sexuality who is male , rather than teacher of male sexuality. Here are the possible forms of the lujvo, both before and after hyphenation:

nak -kem -cin -ctu nakykemcinctu
nak -kem -cin -ctuca nakykemcinctuca
nak -kem -cins -ctu nakykemcinsyctu
nak -kem -cins -ctuca nakykemcinsyctuca
nakn -kem -cin -ctu naknykemcinctu
nakn -kem -cin -ctuca naknykemcinctuca
nakn -kem -cins -ctu naknykemcinsyctu
nakn -kem -cins -ctuca naknykemcinsyctuca

Of these forms, nakykemcinctu is the shortest and is preferred by the scoring algorithm. On the whole, however, it might be better to just make a lujvo for cinse ctuca (which would be cinctu) since the sex of the teacher is rarely important. If there was a reason to specify male , then the simpler tanru nakni cinctu ( male sexual-teacher) would be appropriate. This tanru is actually shorter than the four-part lujvo, since the ke required for grouping need not be expressed.

4.14. The gismu creation algorithm

The gismu were created through the following process:

  1. At least one word was found in each of the six source languages (Chinese, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, Arabic) corresponding to the proposed gismu. This word was rendered into Lojban phonetics rather liberally: consonant clusters consisting of a stop and the corresponding fricative were simplified to just the fricative ( tc became c , dj became j) and non-Lojban vowels were mapped onto Lojban ones. Furthermore, morphological endings were dropped. The same mapping rules were applied to all six languages for the sake of consistency.

  2. All possible gismu forms were matched against the six source-language forms. The matches were scored as follows:

    1. If three or more letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word, and appeared in the same order, the score was equal to the number of letters that were the same. Intervening letters, if any, did not matter.

    2. If exactly two letters were the same in the proposed gismu and the source-language word, and either the two letters were consecutive in both words, or were separated by a single letter in both words, the score was 2. Letters in reversed order got no score.

    3. Otherwise, the score was 0.

  3. The scores were divided by the length of the source-language word in its Lojbanized form, and then multiplied by a weighting value specific to each language, reflecting the proportional number of first-language and second-language speakers of the language. (Second-language speakers were reckoned at half their actual numbers.) The weights were chosen to sum to 1.00. The sum of the weighted scores was the total score for the proposed gismu form.

  4. Any gismu forms that conflicted with existing gismu were removed. Obviously, being identical with an existing gismu constitutes a conflict. In addition, a proposed gismu that was identical to an existing gismu except for the final vowel was considered a conflict, since two such gismu would have identical 4-letter rafsi.

    More subtly: If the proposed gismu was identical to an existing gismu except for a single consonant, and the consonant was "too similar” based on the following table, then the proposed gismu was rejected.

    proposed gismu existing gismu
    b p , v
    c j , s
    d t
    f p , v
    g k , x
    j c , z
    k g , x
    l r
    m n
    n m
    p b , f
    r l
    s c , z
    t d
    v b , f
    x g , k
    z j , s

    See Section 4.4 for an example.

  5. The gismu form with the highest score usually became the actual gismu. Sometimes a lower-scoring form was used to provide a better rafsi. A few gismu were changed in error as a result of transcription blunders (for example, the gismu gismu should have been gicmu , but it's too late to fix it now).

    The language weights used to make most of the gismu were as follows:

    Chinese 0.36
    English 0.21
    Hindi 0.16
    Spanish 0.11
    Russian 0.09
    Arabic 0.07

    reflecting 1985 number-of-speakers data. A few gismu were made much later using updated weights:

    Chinese 0.347
    Hindi 0.196
    English 0.160
    Spanish 0.123
    Russian 0.089
    Arabic 0.085

    (English and Hindi switched places due to demographic changes.)

Note that the stressed vowel of the gismu was considered sufficiently distinctive that two or more gismu may differ only in this vowel; as an extreme example, bradi , bredi , bridi , and brodi (but fortunately not brudi) are all existing gismu.

4.15. Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu

The following gismu were not made by the gismu creation algorithm. They are, in effect, coined words similar to fu'ivla. They are exceptions to the otherwise mandatory gismu creation algorithm where there was sufficient justification for such exceptions. Except for the small metric prefixes and the assignable predicates beginning with brod- , they all end in the letter o , which is otherwise a rare letter in Lojban gismu.

The following gismu represent concepts that are sufficiently unique to Lojban that they were either coined from combining forms of other gismu, or else made up out of whole cloth. These gismu are thus conceptually similar to lujvo even though they are only five letters long; however, unlike lujvo, they have rafsi assigned to them for use in building more complex lujvo. Assigning gismu to these concepts helps to keep the resulting lujvo reasonably short.

broda

1st assignable predicate

brode

2nd assignable predicate

brodi

3rd assignable predicate

brodo

4th assignable predicate

brodu

5th assignable predicate

cmavo

structure word (from cmalu valsi)

lojbo

Lojbanic (from logji bangu)

lujvo

compound word (from pluja valsi)

mekso

Mathematical EXpression

It is important to understand that even though cmavo , lojbo , and lujvo were made up from parts of other gismu, they are now full-fledged gismu used in exactly the same way as all other gismu, both in grammar and in word formation.

The following three groups of gismu represent concepts drawn from the international language of science and mathematics. They are used for concepts that are represented in most languages by a root which is recognized internationally.

Small metric prefixes (values less than 1):

decti .1 deci
centi .01 centi
milti .001 milli
mikri 10 -6 micro
nanvi 10 -9 nano
picti 10 -12 pico
femti 10 -15 femto
xatsi 10 -18 atto
zepti 10 -21 zepto
gocti 10 -24 yocto

Large metric prefixes (values greater than 1):

dekto 10 deka
xecto 100 hecto
kilto 1000 kilo
megdo 10 6 mega
gigdo 10 9 giga
terto 10 12 tera
petso 10 15 peta
xexso 10 18 exa
zetro 10 21 zetta
gotro 10 24 yotta

Other scientific or mathematical terms:

delno

candela

kelvo

kelvin

molro

mole

radno

radian

sinso

sine

stero

steradian

tanjo

tangent

xampo

ampere

The gismu sinso and tanjo were only made non-algorithmically because they were identical (having been borrowed from a common source) in all the dictionaries that had translations. The other terms in this group are units in the international metric system; some metric units, however, were made by the ordinary process (usually because they are different in Chinese).

Finally, there are the cultural gismu, which are also borrowed, but by modifying a word from one particular language, instead of using the multi-lingual gismu creation algorithm. Cultural gismu are used for words that have local importance to a particular culture; other cultures or languages may have no word for the concept at all, or may borrow the word from its home culture, just as Lojban does. In such a case, the gismu algorithm, which uses weighted averages, doesn't accurately represent the frequency of usage of the individual concept. Cultural gismu are not even required to be based on the six major languages.

The six Lojban source languages:

jungo

Chinese (from Zhōngguó)

glico

English

xindo

Hindi

spano

Spanish

rusko

Russian

xrabo

Arabic

Seven other widely spoken languages that were on the list of candidates for gismu-making, but weren't used:

bengo

Bengali

porto

Portuguese

baxso

Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia

ponjo

Japanese (from Nippon)

dotco

German (from Deutsch)

fraso

French (from « Français »)

xurdo

Urdu

(Urdu and Hindi began as the same language with different writing systems, but have now become somewhat different, principally in borrowed vocabulary. Urdu-speakers were counted along with Hindi-speakers when weights were assigned for gismu-making purposes.)

Countries with a large number of speakers of any of the above languages (where the meaning of large is dependent on the specific language):

English:
merko American
brito British
skoto Scottish
sralo Australian
kadno Canadian

Spanish:
gento Argentinian
mexno Mexican

Russian:
softo Soviet/USSR
vukro Ukrainian

Arabic:
filso Palestinian
jerxo Algerian
jordo Jordanian
libjo Libyan
lubno Lebanese
misro Egyptian
morko Moroccan
rakso Iraqi
sadjo Saudi
sirxo Syrian

Bahasa Melayu/Bahasa Indonesia:
bindo Indonesian
meljo Malaysian

Portuguese:
brazo Brazilian

Urdu:
kisto Pakistani

The continents (and oceanic regions) of the Earth:

bemro

North American (from berti merko)

dzipo

Antarctican (from cadzu cipni)

ketco

South American (from Quechua)

friko

African

polno

Polynesian/Oceanic

ropno

European

xazdo

Asiatic

A few smaller but historically important cultures:

latmo

Latin/Roman

srito

Sanskrit

xebro

Hebrew/Israeli/Jewish

xelso

Greek (from «Hellas»)

Major world religions:

budjo

Buddhist

dadjo

Taoist

muslo

Islamic/Moslem

xriso

Christian

A few terms that cover multiple groups of the above:

jegvo

Jehovist (Judeo-Christian-Moslem)

semto

Semitic

slovo

Slavic

xispo

Hispanic (New World Spanish)

4.16. rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal

The list of cultures represented by gismu, given in Section 4.15 , is unavoidably controversial. Much time has been spent debating whether this or that culture deserves a gismu or must languish in fu'ivla space. To help defuse this argument, a last-minute proposal was made when this book was already substantially complete. I have added it here with experimental status: it is not yet a standard part of Lojban, since all its implications have not been tested in open debate, and it affects a part of the language (lujvo-making) that has long been stable, but is known to be fragile in the face of small changes. (Many attempts were made to add general mechanisms for making lujvo that contained fu'ivla, but all failed on obvious or obscure counterexamples; finally the general zei mechanism was devised instead.)

The first part of the proposal is uncontroversial and involves no change to the language mechanisms. All valid Type 4 fu'ivla of the form CCVVCV would be reserved for cultural brivla analogous to those described in Section 4.15. For example,

Example 4.75. 

tci'ile

Chilean


is of the appropriate form, and passes all tests required of a Stage 4 fu'ivla. No two fu'ivla of this form would be allowed to coexist if they differed only in the final vowel; this rule was applied to gismu, but does not apply to other fu'ivla or to lujvo.

The second, and fully experimental, part of the proposal is to allow rafsi to be formed from these cultural fu'ivla by removing the final vowel and treating the result as a 4-letter rafsi (although it would contain five letters, not four). These rafsi could then be used on a par with all other rafsi in forming lujvo. The tanru

Example 4.76. 

tci'ile ke canre tutra
Chilean type-of-( sand territory)

Chilean desert


could be represented by the lujvo

Example 4.77. 

tci'ilykemcantutra


which is an illegal word in standard Lojban, but a valid lujvo under this proposal. There would be no short rafsi or 5-letter rafsi assigned to any fu'ivla, so no fu'ivla could appear as the last element of a lujvo.

The cultural fu'ivla introduced under this proposal are called rafsi fu'ivla , since they are distinguished from other Type 4 fu'ivla by the property of having rafsi. If this proposal is workable and introduces no problems into Lojban morphology, it might become standard for all Type 4 fu'ivla, including those made for plants, animals, foodstuffs, and other things.

Chapter 5. Pretty little girls' school: the structure of Lojban selbri

The picture for chapter 5

5.1. Lojban content words: brivla

At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban bridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi expresses a relationship between things: the selbri specifies which relationship is referred to. The difference between:

Example 5.1. 

do mamta mi
You are-a-mother-of me

You are my mother


and

Example 5.2. 

do patfu mi
You are-a-father-of me.

You are my father.


lies in the different selbri.

The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word: a brivla. There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from combinations of the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are taken (usually in a modified form) from other languages (the fu'ivla). In addition, there are a few cmavo that can act like brivla; these are mentioned in Section 5.9, and discussed in full in Chapter 7.

For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. For example,

Example 5.3. 

ta bloti
That is-a-boat.

That is a boat.


Example 5.4. 

ta brablo
That is-a-large-boat.

That is a ship.


Example 5.5. 

ta blotrskunri
That is-a-(boat)-schooner.

That is a schooner.


illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a single word whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.

The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla, because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of brivla.

5.2. Simple tanru

Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla placed together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla, it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The nearest analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such as lemon tree. There is no way to tell just by looking at the phrase lemon tree exactly what it refers to, even if you know the meanings of lemon and tree by themselves. As English-speakers, we must simply know that it refers to a tree which bears lemons as fruits. A person who didn't know English very well might think of it as analogous to brown tree and wonder, What kind of tree is lemon-colored?

In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English adjective-noun combinations like big boy and adverb-verb combinations like quickly run. This is a consequence of Lojban not having any such categories as noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. English words belonging to any of these categories are translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:

Example 5.6. 

tu pelnimre tricu
That-yonder is-a-lemon tree.

That is a lemon tree.


Example 5.7. 

la .djan. barda nanla
That-named John is-a-big boy.

John is a big boy.


Example 5.8. 

mi sutra bajra
I quick run

I quickly run./I run quickly.


Note that pelnimre is a lujvo for lemon; it is derived from the gismu pelxu, yellow, and nimre, citrus. Note also that sutra can mean fast/quick or quickly depending on its use:

Example 5.9. 

mi sutra
I am-fast/quick

shows sutra used to translate an adjective, whereas in Example 5.8 it is translating an adverb. (Another correct translation of Example 5.8, however, would be I am a quick runner.)

There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru, derived from the place structure of the word tanru. The first component is called the seltau, and the second component is called the tertau.

The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the tertau carries the primary meaning. A pelnimre tricu is primarily a tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For this reason, an alternative translation of Example 5.6 would be:

Example 5.10. 

That is a lemon type of tree.


This type of relationship between the components of a tanru is fundamental to the tanru concept.

We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tertau:

Example 5.11. 

That is a tree which is lemon-ish (in the way appropriate to trees)


would be another possible translation of Example 5.6. In the same way, a more explicit translation of Example 5.7 might be:

Example 5.12. 

John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.


This way that boys are big would be quite different from the way in which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant.

All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:

Example 5.13. 

ta klama jubme
That is-a-goer type-of-table.

include:

  • That is a table which goes (a wheeled table, perhaps).

  • That is a table owned by one who goes.

  • That is a table used by those who go (a sports doctor's table?).

  • That is a table when it goes (otherwise it is a chair?).

In each case the object referred to is a goer type of table, but the ambiguous type of relationship can mean one of many things. A speaker who uses tanru (and pragmatically all speakers must) takes the risk of being misunderstood. Using tanru is convenient because they are short and expressive; the circumlocution required to squeeze out all ambiguity can require too much effort.

No general theory covering the meaning of all possible tanru exists; probably no such theory can exist. However, some regularities obviously do exist:

Example 5.14. 

do barda prenu
You are-a-large person.

Example 5.15. 

do cmalu prenu
You are-a-small person.

are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between barda and prenu is the same as that between cmalu and prenu. Section 5.14 and Section 5.15 contain a partial listing of some types of tanru, with examples.

5.3. Three-part tanru grouping with bo

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

bo

BO

closest scope grouping

Consider the English sentence:

Example 5.16. 

That's a little girls' school.


What does it mean? Two possible readings are:

Example 5.17. 

That's a little school for girls.


Example 5.18. 

That's a school for little girls.


This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity described in Section 5.2. We understand that girls' school means a school where girls are the students, and not a school where girls are the teachers or a school which is a girl (!). Likewise, we understand that little girl means girl who is small. This is an ambiguity of grouping. Is girls' school to be taken as a unit, with little specifying the type of girls' school? Or is little girl to be taken as a unit, specifying the type of school? In English speech, different tones of voice, or exaggerated speech rhythm showing the grouping, are used to make the distinction; English writing usually leaves it unrepresented.

Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit words are used to do the work. The cmavo bo (which belongs to selma'o BO) may be placed between the two brivla which are most closely associated. Therefore, a Lojban translation of Example 5.17 would be:

Example 5.19. 

ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
That is-a-small girl - school.

Example 5.18 might be translated:

Example 5.20. 

ta cmalu bo nixli ckule
That is-a-small - girl school.

The bo is represented in the literal translation by a bracketed hyphen (not to be confused with the bare hyphen used as a placeholder in other glosses) because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same purpose: a big dog-catcher would be quite different from a big-dog catcher (presumably someone who catches only big dogs).

Analysis of Example 5.19 and Example 5.20 reveals a tanru nested within a tanru. In Example 5.19, the main tanru has a seltau of cmalu and a tertau of nixli bo ckule; the tertau is itself a tanru with nixli as the seltau and ckule as the tertau. In Example 5.20, on the other hand, the seltau is cmalu bo nixli (itself a tanru), whereas the tertau is ckule. This structure of tanru nested within tanru forms the basis for all the more complex types of selbri that will be explained below.

What about Example 5.21 ? What does it mean?

Example 5.21. 

ta cmalu nixli ckule
That is-a-small girl school.

The rules of Lojban do not leave this sentence ambiguous, as the rules of English do with Example 5.16. The choice made by the language designers is to say that Example 5.21 means the same as Example 5.20. This is true no matter what three brivla are used: the leftmost two are always grouped together. This rule is called the left-grouping rule. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguous structures is quite common – though not universal – in other contexts in Lojban.

Another way to express the English meaning of Example 5.19 and Example 5.20, using parentheses to mark grouping, is:

Example 5.22. 

ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).

Example 5.23. 

ta cmalu bo nixli ckule
That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of school.

Because type-of is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no Lojban equivalent.

Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert bo into a simple tanru:

Example 5.24. 

ta klama bo jubme
That is-a-goer - table.

is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as Example 5.13, and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo bo serves only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says nothing about the more basic ambiguity present in all tanru.

5.4. Complex tanru grouping

If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?

Example 5.25. 

do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu
You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog type-of capturer).

You are a very large dog-catcher.


In Example 5.25, the selbri is a tanru with seltau mutce bo barda and tertau gerku bo kavbu. It is worth emphasizing once again that this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban tanru: the sense in which the dog type-of capturer is said to be very type-of large is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other properties.

We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the ramifications of the phrase pretty little girls' school, an expansion of the tanru used in Section 5.3 to four brivla. (Although this example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning – it first appeared in Quine's book Word and Object (1960) – it is actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English pretty; it can mean beautiful, the sense intended here, or it can mean very. Lojban melbi is not subject to this ambiguity: it means only beautiful.)

Here are four ways to group this phrase:

Example 5.26. 

ta melbi cmalu nixli ckule
That is-a-((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school.

That is a school for girls who are beautifully small.


Example 5.27. 

ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule
That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl type-of school).

That is a girls' school which is beautifully small.


Example 5.28. 

ta melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule
That is-a-(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school.

That is a school for small girls who are beautiful.


Example 5.29. 

ta melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school)).

That is a small school for girls which is beautiful.


Example 5.29 uses a construction which has not been seen before: cmalu bo nixli bo ckule, with two consecutive uses of bo between brivla. The rule for multiple bo constructions is the opposite of the rule when no bo is present at all: the last two are grouped together. Not surprisingly, this is called the right-grouping rule, and it is associated with every use of bo in the language. Therefore,

Example 5.30. 

ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of school).

means the same as Example 5.19, not Example 5.20. This rule may seem peculiar at first, but one of its consequences is that bo is never necessary between the first two elements of any of the complex tanru presented so far: all of Example 5.26 through Example 5.29 could have bo inserted between melbi and cmalu with no change in meaning.

5.5. Complex tanru with ke and ke'e

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ke

KE

start grouping

ke'e

KEhE

end grouping

There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of pretty little girls' school that cannot be expressed with the resources explained so far. To handle it, we must introduce the grouping parentheses cmavo, ke and ke'e (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). Any portion of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a single tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus, Example 5.26 can be rewritten in any of the following ways:

Example 5.31. 

ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.

Example 5.32. 

ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule
That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl ) school.

Example 5.33. 

ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule ke'e
That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl ) school ).

Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number of ke cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like number of ke'e cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a waste of breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the following is equivalent to Example 5.28 and may be easier to understand:

Example 5.34. 

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e ckule
That is-a-( pretty type-of ( little type-of girl ) ) type-of school.

Likewise, a ke and ke'e version of Example 5.27 would be:

Example 5.35. 

ta melbi cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e]
That is-a-(pretty type-of little) ( girl type-of school ).

The final ke'e is given in square brackets here to indicate that it can be elided. It is always possible to elide ke'e at the end of the selbri, making Example 5.35 as terse as Example 5.27.

Now how about that fifth grouping? It is

Example 5.36. 

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]
That is-a-pretty type-of ( ( little type-of girl ) type-of school ).

That is a beautiful school for small girls.


Example 5.36 is distinctly different in meaning from any of Example 5.26 through Example 5.29. Note that within the keke'e parentheses, the left-grouping rule is applied to cmalu nixli ckule.

It is perfectly all right to mix bo and keke'e in a single selbri. For instance, Example 5.29, which in pure keke'e form is

Example 5.37. 

ta melbi ke cmalu
That is-a-pretty type-of ( little
ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]
type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).

can equivalently be expressed as:

Example 5.38. 

ta melbi ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]
That is-a-pretty type-of ( little type-of-( girl type-of school )).

and in many other different forms as well.

5.6. Logical connection within tanru

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

je

JA

tanru logical and

ja

JA

tanru logical or

joi

JOI

mixed mass and

gu'e

GUhA

tanru forethought logical and

gi

GI

forethought connection separator

Consider the English phrase big red dog. How shall this be rendered as a Lojban tanru? The naive attempt:

Example 5.39. 

barda xunre gerku
(big type-of red) type-of dog

will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever way redness might be described as big. Nor is

Example 5.40. 

barda xunre bo gerku
big type-of (red type-of dog)

much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules of English adjective ordering prevent us from saying red big dog.

The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo je, which is one of the many equivalents of English and. A big red dog is one that is both big and red, and we can say:

Example 5.41. 

barda je xunre gerku
(big and red) type-of dog

Of course,

Example 5.42. 

xunre je barda gerku
(red and big) type-of dog

is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples indicate, joining two brivla with je makes them a unit for tanru purposes. However, explicit grouping with bo or keke'e associates brivla more closely than je does:

Example 5.43. 

barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku
(big and (yellow type-of red)) dog
barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku
(big and ( yellow type-of red) ) dog

big yellowish-red dog


With no grouping indicators, we get:

Example 5.44. 

barda je pelxu xunre gerku
((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of dog

biggish- and yellowish-red dog


which again raises the question of Example 5.39: what does biggish-red mean?

Unlike bo and keke'e, je is useful as well as merely legal within simple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the ambiguity of simple tanru:

Example 5.45. 

ta blanu je zdani
that is-blue and is-a-house

definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, and not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple blanu zdani. Furthermore, blanu zdani refers to something which is blue in the way that houses are blue; blanu je zdani has no such implication – the blueness of a blanu je zdani is independent of its houseness.

With the addition of je, many more versions of pretty little girls' school are made possible: see Section 5.16 for a complete list.

A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like Example 5.41 needs special elucidation. There are at least two possible interpretations of:

Example 5.46. 

ta melbi je nixli ckule
That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of school.

It can be understood as:

Example 5.47. 

That is a girls' school and a beautiful school.


or as:

Example 5.48. 

That is a school for things which are both girls and beautiful.


The interpretation specified by Example 5.47 treats the tanru as a sort of abbreviation for:

Example 5.49. 

ta ke melbi ckule ke'e je ke nixli ckule [ke'e]
That is-a-( beautiful type-of school ) and ( girl type-of school )

whereas the interpretation specified by Example 5.48 does not. This is a kind of semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm resolution. The way in which the school is said to be of type beautiful and girl may entail that it is separately a beautiful school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, that the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible. Still another interpretation is:

Example 5.50. 

That is a school for beautiful things and also for girls.


so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of tanru, they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves.

In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the formal manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives that exist outside tanru; see Section 14.12 for further details.

The logical connective je is only one of the fourteen logical connectives that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of the others:

Example 5.51. 

le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga

the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or loser(s).


Example 5.52. 

blanu naja lenku skapi
(blue only-if cold) skin

skin which is blue only if it is cold


Example 5.53. 

xamgu jo tordu nuntavla
(good if-and-only-if short) speech

speech which is good if (and only if) it is short


Example 5.54. 

vajni ju pluka nuntavla
(important whether-or-not pleasing) event-of-talking

speech which is important, whether or not it is pleasing


In Example 5.51, ja is grammatically equivalent to je but means or (more precisely, and/or). Likewise, naja means only if in Example 5.52, jo means if and only if in Example 5.53, and ju means whether or not in Example 5.54.

Now consider the following example:

Example 5.55. 

ricfu je blanu jabo crino
rich and (blue or green)

which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both ja and bo between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to form a compound whose meaning is that of ja but which groups more closely; ja bo is to ja as plain bo is to no cmavo at all. However, both ja and ja bo group less closely than bo does:

Example 5.56. 

ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu
rich and (blue or green - blue)

rich and (blue or greenish-blue)


An alternative form of Example 5.55 is:

Example 5.57. 

ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e]
rich and ( blue or green )

In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones. The only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is joi, which is the kind of and that denotes a mixture:

Example 5.58. 

ti blanu joi xunre bolci
This is-a-(blue and red) ball.

The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two colors. Example 5.58 is distinct from:

Example 5.59. 

ti blanu xunre bolci

This is a bluish-red ball


which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward red, since xunre is the more important of the two components. On the other hand,

Example 5.60. 

ti blanu je xunre bolci
This is-a-(blue and red) ball

is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is independently both blue and red at the same time, although some sensible interpretation may exist.

Finally, just as English and has the variant form both ... and, so je between tanru components has the variant form gu'egi, where gu'e is placed before the components and gi between them:

Example 5.61. 

gu'e barda gi xunre gerku
(both big and red) type-of dog

is equivalent in meaning to Example 5.41. For each logical connective related to je, there is a corresponding connective related to gu'egi in a systematic way.

The portion of a gu'egi construction before the gi is a full selbri, and may use any of the selbri resources including je logical connections. After the gi, logical connections are taken to be wider in scope than the gu'egi, which has in effect the same scope as bo:

Example 5.62. 

gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja mlatu
(both (big and red) and dog) or cat

something which is either big, red, and a dog, or else a cat


leaves mlatu outside the gu'egi construction. The scope of the gi arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more brivla connected with bo or keke'e.

5.7. Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

be

BE

linked sumti marker

bei

BEI

linked sumti separator

be'o

BEhO

linked sumti terminator

The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed over so far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues in detail; they are discussed in Chapter 9. One grammatical structure related to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as Example 5.1, the place structure of the selbri is simply the defined place structure of the gismu mamta. What about more complex selbri?

For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structure of a tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place structure of blanu zdani is that of zdani: the x1 place is a house or nest, and the x2 place is its occupants.

What about the places of blanu ? Is there any way to get them into the act? In fact, blanu has only one place, and this is merged, as it were, with the x1 place of zdani. It is whatever is in the x1 place that is being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we replace blanu with xamgu, we get:

Example 5.63. 

ti xamgu zdani
This is-a-good house.

This is a good (for someone, by some standard) house.


Since xamgu has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness), Example 5.63 necessarily omits information about the last two: there is no room for them. Room can be made, however!

Example 5.64. 

ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani
This is-a-good (for you by-standard me) house.

This is a house that is good for you by my standards.


Here, the gismu xamgu has been followed by the cmavo be (of selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumti follows. These sumti are not part of the overall bridi place structure, but fill the places of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If there is more than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo bei (of selma'o BEI), and the list of sumti is terminated by the elidable terminator be'o (of selma'o BEhO).

Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a fully fleshed-out version of Example 5.19, with all places filled in:

Example 5.65. 

ti cmalu be le ka se canlu
This is-a-small (in-dimension the property-of [swap x1 and x2] volume
bei lo'e ckule be'o
by-standard the-typical school)
nixli be le nanca be li mu be'o
(girl (of the years-in-duration of the-number five)
bei lo merko be'o bo ckule
by-standard some American-thing) school-located-at)
la .bryklyn.
that-named Brooklyn
loi pemci
with-subject poems
le mela .nu,IORK. prenu
for-audience-the among-that-named New-York persons
le jecta
with-operator-the state.

This is a school, small in volume compared to the typical school, pertaining to five-year-old girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn, teaching poetry to the New York community and operated by the state.


Here the three places of cmalu, the three of nixli, and the four of ckule are fully specified. Since the places of ckule are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link the sumti which follow ckule. It would have been legal to do so, however:

Example 5.66. 

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o]
I go ( to-the market from-the house ).

means the same as

Example 5.67. 

mi klama le zarci le zdani
I go to-the market from-the house.

No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the place structure: the place structure of

Example 5.68. 

melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule
a (pretty and little) (girl school)

a school for girls which is both beautiful and small


is simply that of ckule. (The sole exception to this rule is discussed in Section 5.8.)

It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering tags fe, fi, fo, and fu (of selma'o FA, discussed further in Section 9.3), which serve to explicitly specify the x2, x3, x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the be is the x2 place and the other places follow in order. If it seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplished as follows:

Example 5.69. 

ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani
This is-a-good ( by-standard me for you ) house.

which is equivalent in meaning to Example 5.64. Note that the order of be, bei, and be'o does not change; only the inserted fi tells us that mi is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted fe tells us that do is the x2 place). Changing the order of sumti is often done to match the order of another language, or for emphasis or rhythm.

Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while omitting a previous place:

Example 5.70. 

ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani
This is-a-good ( by-standard me ) house.

This is a good house by my standards.


Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:

Example 5.71. 

ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani
That is-a-blue ( to-observer me ) house.

That is a blue, as I see it, house.


The meaning of Example 5.71 is slightly different from:

Example 5.72. 

ta blanu zdani ga'a mi
That is-a-blue house to-observer me.

That is a blue house, as I see it.


See discussions in Chapter 9 of modals and in Chapter 10 of tenses for more explanations.

The terminator be'o is almost always elidable: however, if the selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it will attach to the last linked sumti unless be'o is used, in which case it will attach to the outer description:

Example 5.73. 

le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani
The good-thing for you (who are-large) is-a-house.

Example 5.74. 

le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani
The (good-thing for you ) (which is-large) is-a-house

(Relative clauses are explained in Chapter 8.)

In other cases, however, be'o cannot be elided if ku has also been elided:

Example 5.75. 

le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani
the good (for the teacher) house

requires either ku or be'o, and since there is only one occurrence of be, the be'o must match it, whereas it may be confusing which occurrence of le the ku terminates (in fact the second one is correct).

5.8. Inversion of tanru: co

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

co

CO

tanru inversion marker

The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precedes what it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of blue houses, not of houses blue. In other languages, however, such matters are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse order (tertau before seltau) by inserting the particle co. Example 5.76 and Example 5.77 mean exactly the same thing:

Example 5.76. 

ta blanu zdani
That is-a-blue type-of-house.

That is a blue house.


Example 5.77. 

ta zdani co blanu
That is-a-house of-type blue.

That is a blue house.


This change is called tanru inversion. In tanru inversion, the element before co (zdani in Example 5.77) is the tertau, and the element following co (blanu) in Example 5.77) is the seltau.

The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is not affected by inversion: the place structure of zdani co blanu is still that of zdani. However, the existence of inversion in a selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri. Instead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they actually fill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In Section 5.7, we saw how to fill interior places with bebeibe'o, and in fact Example 5.78 and Example 5.79 have the same meaning:

Example 5.78. 

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o troci
I am-a-(goer to the market from the house ) type-of-trier.

I try to go to the market from the house.


Example 5.79. 

mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani
I am-a-trier of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).

I try to go to the market from the house.


Example 5.79 is a less deeply nested construction, requiring fewer cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to understand.

Note that in Lojban trying to go is expressed using troci as the tertau. The reason is that trying to go is a going type of trying, not a trying type of going. The trying is more fundamental than the going – if the trying fails, we may not have a going at all.

Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the places of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way. In Example 5.79, mi fills the x1 place of troci co klama, which is the x1 place of troci. The other places of the selbri remain unfilled. The trailing sumti le zarci and le zdani do not occupy selbri places, despite appearances.

As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving the vo'a and the go'a-series, explained in Section 7.6 and Section 7.8) for referring to individual sumti of a bridi cannot refer to any of the trailing places of Example 5.79, because they are not really sumti of the bridi at all.

When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it only at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversion of Example 5.19, for instance, is:

Example 5.80. 

ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu
That (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type little.

That's a girls' school which is small.


Note that the bo of Example 5.19 is optional in Example 5.80, because co groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tanru, including none at all. Not even keke'e parentheses can encompass a co:

Example 5.81. 

ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] co melbi
That is-a-(little type-of ( girl type-of school )) of-type pretty.

That's a small school for girls which is beautiful.


In Example 5.81, the ke'e is automatically inserted before the co rather than at its usual place at the end of the selbri. As a result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing co from any selbri: change A co B to ke B ke'e A. (At the same time, any sumti following the selbri must be transformed into bebeibe'o form and attached following B.) Therefore,

Example 5.82. 

ckule co melbi nixli
school of-type pretty girl

school for beautiful girls


means the same as:

Example 5.83. 

ke melbi nixli ke'e ckule
( pretty girl ) school

Multiple co cmavo can appear within a selbri, indicating multiple inversions: a right-grouping rule is employed, as for bo. The above rule can be applied to interpret such selbri, but all co cmavo must be removed simultaneously:

Example 5.84. 

ckule co nixli co cmalu
school of-type (girl of-type little)

becomes formally

Example 5.85. 

ke ke cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule
( ( little ) girl ) school

which by the left-grouping rule is simply

Example 5.86. 

cmalu nixli ckule
little girl school

school for little girls


As stated above, the selbri places, other than the first, of

Example 5.87. 

mi klama co sutra
I am-a-goer of-type quick

I go quickly


cannot be filled by placing sumti after the selbri, because any sumti in that position fill the places of sutra, the seltau. However, the tertau places (which means in effect the selbri places) can be filled with be:

Example 5.88. 

mi klama be le zarci be'o co sutra
I am-a-goer ( to-the store ) of-type quick.

I go to the store quickly.


5.9. Other kinds of simple selbri

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

go'i

GOhA

repeats the previous bridi

du

GOhA

equality

nu'a

NUhA

math operator to selbri

moi

MOI

changes number to ordinal selbri

mei

MOI

changes number to cardinal selbri

nu

NU

event abstraction

kei

KEI

terminator for NU

So far we have only discussed brivla and tanru built up from brivla as possible selbri. In fact, there are a few other constructions in Lojban which are grammatically equivalent to brivla: they can be used either directly as selbri, or as components in tanru. Some of these types of simple selbri are discussed at length in Chapter 7, Chapter 11, and Chapter 18; but for completeness these types are mentioned here with a brief explanation and an example of their use in selbri.

The cmavo of selma'o GOhA (with one exception) serve as pro-bridi, providing a reference to the content of other bridi; none of them has a fixed meaning. The most commonly used member of GOhA is probably go'i, which amounts to a repetition of the previous bridi, or part of it. If I say:

Example 5.89. 

la .djan. klama le zarci
That-named John goes-to the market.

you may retort:

Example 5.90. 

la .djan. go'i troci
That-named John [repeat-last] are-a-trier.

John tries to.


Example 5.90 is short for:

Example 5.91. 

la .djan. klama be le zarci be'o troci
That-named John is-a-goer ( to-the market ) type-of trier.

because the whole bridi of Example 5.89 has been packaged up into the single word go'i and inserted into Example 5.90.

The exceptional member of GOhA is du, which represents the relation of identity. Its place structure is:

x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...

for as many places as are given. More information on selma'o GOhA is available in Chapter 7.

Lojban mathematical expressions (mekso) can be incorporated into selbri in two different ways. Mathematical operators such as su'i, meaning plus, can be transformed into selbri by prefixing them with nu'a (of selma'o NUhA). The resulting place structure is:

x1 is the result of applying (the operator) to arguments x2, x3, etc.

for as many arguments as are required. (The result goes in the x1 place because the number of following places may be indefinite.) For example:

Example 5.92. 

li vo nu'a su'i li re li re
The-number 4 is-the-sum-of the-number 2 and-the-number 2.

A possible tanru example might be:

Example 5.93. 

mi jimpe tu'a loi nu'a su'i nabmi
I understand something-about the-mass-of is-the-sum-of problems.

I understand addition problems.


More usefully, it is possible to combine a mathematical expression with a cmavo of selma'o MOI to create one of various numerical selbri. Details are available in Section 18.11. Here are a few tanru:

Example 5.94. 

la .prim. .palvr. pamoi cusku
That-named Preem Palver is-the-1-th speaker.

Preem Palver is the first speaker.


Example 5.95. 

la .an,iis. joi la .asun.
That-named Anyi massed-with that-named Asun
bruna remei
are-a-brother type-of-twosome.

Anyi and Asun are two brothers.


Finally, an important type of simple selbri which is not a brivla is the abstraction. Grammatically, abstractions are simple: a cmavo of selma'o NU, followed by a bridi, followed by the elidable terminator kei of selma'o KEI. Semantically, abstractions are an extremely subtle and powerful feature of Lojban whose full ramifications are documented in Chapter 11. A few examples:

Example 5.96. 

ti nu zdile kei kumfa
This is-an-event-of amusement room.

This is an amusement room.


Example 5.96 is quite distinct in meaning from:

Example 5.97. 

ti zdile kumfa
This is-an-amuser room.

which suggests the meaning a room that amuses someone.

5.10. selbri based on sumti: me

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

me

ME

changes sumti to simple selbri

me'u

MEhU

terminator for me

A sumti can be made into a simple selbri by preceding it with me (of selma'o ME) and following it with the elidable terminator me'u (of selma'o MEhU). This makes a selbri with the place structure

x1 is one of the referents of [the sumti]

which is true of the thing, or things, that are the referents of the sumti, and not of anything else. For example, consider the sumti

Example 5.98. 

le ci nolraitru
the three noblest-governors

the three kings


If these are understood to be the Three Kings of Christian tradition, who arrive every year on January 6, then we may say:

Example 5.99. 

la .BALtazar. cu me le ci nolraitru
That-named Balthazar is-one-of-the-referents-of the three kings.

Balthazar is one of the three kings.


and likewise

Example 5.100. 

la .kaspar. cu me le ci nolraitru

Caspar is one of the three kings.


and

Example 5.101. 

la .melxi,or. cu me le ci nolraitru

Melchior is one of the three kings.


If the sumti refers to a single object, then the effect of me is much like that of du:

Example 5.102. 

do du la .djan.
You are-identical-with that-named John.

You are John.


means the same as

Example 5.103. 

do me la .djan.
You are-the-referent-of that-named John.

You are John.


It is common to use me selbri, especially those based on name sumti using la, as seltau. For example:

Example 5.104. 

ta me lai .kraislr. [me'u] karce
That (is-a-referent-of the-mass-named Chrysler ) car.

That is a Chrysler car.


The elidable terminator me'u can usually be omitted. It is absolutely required only if the me selbri is being used in an indefinite description (a type of sumti explained in Section 6.8), and if the indefinite description is followed by a relative clause (explained in Chapter 8) or a sumti logical connective (explained in Section 14.6). Without a me'u, the relative clause or logical connective would appear to belong to the sumti embedded in the me expression. Here is a contrasting pair of sentences:

Example 5.105. 

re me le ci nolraitru .e la .djan. [me'u] cu blabi

Two of the group the three kings and John are white.


Example 5.106. 

re me le ci nolraitru me'u .e la .djan. cu blabi

Two of the three kings, and John, are white.


In Example 5.105 the me selbri covers the three kings plus John, and the indefinite description picks out two of them that are said to be white: we cannot say which two. In Example 5.106, though, the me selbri covers only the three kings: two of them are said to be white, and so is John.

Finally, here is another example requiring me'u:

Example 5.107. 

ta me la'e le se cusku be do me'u cukta
That is-a-(what-you-said) type-of book.

That is the kind of book you were talking about.


There are other sentences where either me'u or some other elidable terminator must be expressed:

Example 5.108. 

le me le ci nolraitru [ku] me'u nunsalci
the (the three kings) type-of-event-of-celebrating

the Three Kings celebration


requires either ku or me'u to be explicit, and (as with be'o in Section 5.7) the me'u leaves no doubt which cmavo it is paired with.

5.11. Conversion of simple selbri

Conversion is the process of changing a selbri so that its places appear in a different order. This is not the same as labeling the sumti with the cmavo of FA, as mentioned in Section 5.7, and then rearranging the order in which the sumti are spoken or written. Conversion transforms the selbri into a distinct, though closely related, selbri with renumbered places.

In Lojban, conversion is accomplished by placing a cmavo of selma'o SE before the selbri:

Example 5.109. 

mi prami do

I love you.


is equivalent in meaning to:

Example 5.110. 

do se prami mi
You [swap x1 and x2] love me.

You are loved by me.


Conversion is fully explained in Section 9.4. For the purposes of this chapter, the important point about conversion is that it applies only to the following simple selbri. When trying to convert a tanru, therefore, it is necessary to be careful! Consider Example 5.111:

Example 5.111. 

la .alis. cu cadzu klama le zarci
That-named Alice is-a-walker type-of-goer-to the market.
That-named Alice walkingly goes-to the market.

Alice walks to the market.


To convert this sentence so that le zarci is in the x1 place, one correct way is:

Example 5.112. 

le zarci cu se
The market is-a-[swap x1/x2]
The market
ke cadzu klama [ke'e] la .alis.
( walker type-of-goer-to ) that-named Alice.
is-walkingly gone-to-by that-named Alice.

The keke'e brackets cause the entire tanru to be converted by the se, which would otherwise convert only cadzu, leading to:

Example 5.113. 

le zarci cu se cadzu
The market (is-a-[swap x1/x2] walker)
The market is-a-walking-surface
klama la .alis.
type-of-goer-to that-named Alice.
type-of-goer-to that-named Alice.

whatever that might mean. An alternative approach, since the place structure of cadzu klama is that of klama alone, is to convert only the latter:

Example 5.114. 

le zarci cu cadzu se klama la .alis.
The market walkingly is-gone-to-by that-named Alice.

But the tanru in Example 5.114 may or may not have the same meaning as that in Example 5.111; in particular, because cadzu is not converted, there is a suggestion that although Alice is the goer, the market is the walker. With a different sumti as x1, this seemingly odd interpretation might make considerable sense:

Example 5.115. 

la .djan. cu cadzu se klama la .alis
That-named John walkingly is-gone-to-by that-named Alice

suggests that Alice is going to John, who is a moving target.

There is an alternative type of conversion, using the cmavo jai of selma'o JAI optionally followed by a modal or tense construction. Grammatically, such a combination behaves exactly like conversion using SE. More details can be found in Section 9.12.

5.12. Scalar negation of selbri

Negation is too large and complex a topic to explain fully in this chapter; see Chapter 15. In brief, there are two main types of negation in Lojban. This section is concerned with so-called scalar negation, which is used to state that a true relation between the sumti is something other than what the selbri specifies. Scalar negation is expressed by cmavo of selma'o NAhE:

Example 5.116. 

la .alis. cu na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci
That-named Alice non- ( walkingly goes-to ) the market.

Alice doesn't walk to the market.


meaning that Alice's relationship to the market is something other than that of walking there. But if the ke were omitted, the result would be:

Example 5.117. 

la .alis. cu na'e cadzu klama le zarci
That-named Alice non- walkingly goes-to the market.

Alice doesn't walk to the market.


meaning that Alice does go there in some way (klama is not negated), but by a means other than that of walking. Example 5.116 negates both cadzu and klama, suggesting that Alice's relation to the market is something different from walkingly-going; it might be walking without going, or going without walking, or neither.

Of course, any of the simple selbri types explained in Section 5.9 may be used in place of brivla in any of these examples:

Example 5.118. 

la .djonz. cu na'e pamoi cusku
That-named Jones is-non- 1st speaker

Jones is not the first speaker.


Since only pamoi is negated, an appropriate inference is that he is some other kind of speaker.

Here is an assortment of more complex examples showing the interaction of scalar negation with bo grouping, ke and ke'e grouping, logical connection, and sumti linked with be and bei. Note that both bo and be bind less tightly than NAhE.

Example 5.119. 

mi na'e sutra bo cadzu be fi le birka be'o klama le zarci
I ((non- quickly) (walking using the arms )) go-to the market.

I go to the market, walking using my arms other than quickly.


In Example 5.119, na'e negates only sutra. Contrast Example 5.120:

Example 5.120. 

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o]
I non- ( quickly (walking using the arms )
ke'e klama le zarci
) go-to the market.

I go to the market, other than by walking quickly on my arms.


Now consider Example 5.121 and Example 5.122, which are equivalent in meaning, but use normal grouping and ke grouping respectively:

Example 5.121. 

mi sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o
I (quickly (walking using the arms )
je masno klama le zarci
and slowly) go-to the market.

I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.


Example 5.122. 

mi ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e
I ( (quickly (walking using the arms ) )
je masno klama le zarci
and slowly) go-to the market.

I go to the market, both quickly walking using my arms and slowly.


However, if we place a na'e at the beginning of the selbri in both Example 5.121 and Example 5.122, we get different results:

Example 5.123. 

mi na'e sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o
I ((non- quickly) (walking using the arms )
je masno klama le zarci
and slowly) go-to the market.

I go to the market, both walking using my arms other than quickly, and also slowly.


Example 5.124. 

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka [be'o] ke'e
I (non ( quickly (walking using the arms) )
je masno klama le zarci
and slowly) go-to the market.

I go to the market, both other than quickly walking using my arms, and also slowly.


The difference arises because the na'e in Example 5.124 negates the whole construction from ke to ke'e, whereas in Example 5.123 it negates sutra alone.

Beware of omitting terminators in these complex examples! If the explicit ke'e is left out in Example 5.124, it is transformed into:

Example 5.125. 

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka be'o [ke'e]
I non- ( quickly walking [ using the arms ] )
je masno klama [ke'e] le zarci
and slowly) go-to ) the market.

I do something other than quickly both going to the market walking using my arms and slowly going to the market.


And if both ke'e and be'o are omitted, the results are even sillier:

Example 5.126. 

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be fi le birka je masno
I non ( quickly walk on-my (the arm-type and slow)
klama [be'o] [ke'e] le zarci
goers ) on-surface the market.

I do something other than quickly walking using the goers, both arm-type and slow, relative-to the market.


In Example 5.126, everything after be is a linked sumti, so the place structure is that of cadzu, whose x2 place is the surface walked upon. It is less than clear what an arm-type goer might be. Furthermore, since the x3 place has been occupied by the linked sumti, the le zarci following the selbri falls into the nonexistent x4 place of cadzu. As a result, the whole example, though grammatical, is complete nonsense. (The bracketed Lojban words appear where a fluent Lojbanist would understand them to be implied.)

Finally, it is also possible to place na'e before a gu'egi logically connected tanru construction. The meaning of this usage has not yet been firmly established.

5.13. Tenses and bridi negation

A bridi can have cmavo associated with it which specify the time, place, or mode of action. For example, in

Example 5.127. 

mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go-to the market.

I went to the market.


the cmavo pu specifies that the action of the speaker going to the market takes place in the past. Tenses are explained in full detail in Chapter 10. Tense is semantically a property of the entire bridi; however, the usual syntax for tenses attaches them at the front of the selbri, as in Example 5.127. There are alternative ways of expressing tense information as well. Modals, which are explained in Chapter 9, behave in the same way as tenses.

Similarly, a bridi may have the particle na (of selma'o NA) attached to the beginning of the selbri to negate the bridi. A negated bridi expresses what is false without saying anything about what is true. Do not confuse this usage with the scalar negation of Section 5.12. For example:

Example 5.128. 

la .djonz. na pamoi cusku
That-named Jones (Not!) is-the-first speaker

It is not true that Jones is the first speaker.

Jones isn't the first speaker.


Jones may be the second speaker, or not a speaker at all; Example 5.128 doesn't say. There are other ways of expressing bridi negation as well; the topic is explained fully in Chapter 15.

Various combinations of tense and bridi negation cmavo are permitted. If both are expressed, either order is permissible with no change in meaning:

Example 5.129. 

mi na pu klama le zarci

It is false that I went to the market.

I didn't go to the market.


It is also possible to have more than one na, in which case pairs of na cmavo cancel out:

Example 5.130. 

mi na na klama le zarci

It is false that it is false that I go to the market.

I go to the market.


It is even possible, though somewhat pointless, to have multiple na cmavo and tense cmavo mixed together, subject to the limitation that two adjacent tense cmavo will be understood as a compound tense, and must fit the grammar of tenses as explained in Chapter 10.

Example 5.131. 

mi na pu na ca klama le zarci
I [not] [past] [not] [present] go-to the market

It is not the case that in the past it was not the case that in the present I went to the market.

I didn't not go to the market.

I went to the market.


Tense, modal, and negation cmavo can appear only at the beginning of the selbri. They cannot be embedded within it.

5.14. Some types of asymmetrical tanru

This section and Section 5.15 contain some example tanru classified into groups based on the type of relationship between the modifying seltau and the modified tertau. All the examples are paralleled by compounds actually observed in various natural languages. In the tables which follow, each group is preceded by a brief explanation of the relationship. The tables themselves contain a tanru, a literal gloss, the languages which exhibit a compound analogous to this tanru, and (for those tanru with no English parallel) a translation.

The tanru discussed in this section are asymmetrical tanru; that is, ones in which the order of the terms is fundamental to the meaning of the tanru. For example, junla dadysli, or clock pendulum, is the kind of pendulum used in a clock, whereas dadysli junla, or pendulum clock, is the kind of clock that employs a pendulum. Most tanru are asymmetrical in this sense. Symmetrical tanru are discussed in Section 5.15.

The tertau represents an action, and the seltau then represents the object of that action:

Table 5.1. Example tanru

pinsi nunkilca'a pencil sharpener Hungarian
zgike nunctu music instruction Hungarian
mirli nunkalte deer hunting Hungarian
finpe nunkalte fish hunting Turkish,Korean,Udmurt,Abazin fishing
smacu terkavbu mousetrap Turkish,Korean,Hungarian,Udmurt,Abazin
zdani turni house ruler Karaitic host
zerle'a nunte'a thief fear Sanskrit fear of thieves
cevni zekri god crime Sanskrit offense against the gods

Table 5.2. Mini-Glossary

nunkilbra

sharpness-apparatus

nunctu

event-of-teaching

nunkalte

event-of-hunting

terkavbu

trap

zerle'a

crime-taker

nunte'a

event-of-fearing


The tertau represents a set, and the seltau the type of the elements contained in that set:

Table 5.3. Example tanru

zdani lijgri house row
selci lamgri cell block
karda mulgri card pack Swedish
rokci derxi stone heap Swedish
tadni girzu student group Hungarian
remna girzu human-being group Qabardian group of people
cpumi'i lijgri tractor column Qabardian
cevni jenmi god army Sanskrit
cevni prenu god folk Sanskrit

Table 5.4. Mini-Glossary

lijgri

line-group

lamgri

adjacent-group

mulgri

complete-group

cpumi'i

pull-machine


Conversely: the tertau is an element, and the seltau represents a set in which that element is contained. Implicitly, the meaning of the tertau is restricted from its usual general meaning to the specific meaning appropriate for elements in the given set. Note the opposition between zdani lijgri in the previous group, and lijgri zdani in this one, which shows why this kind of tanru is called asymmetrical.

Table 5.5. Example tanru

carvi dirgo raindrop Turkish,Korean,Hungarian,Udmurt,Abazin
linji zdani row house

The seltau specifies an object and the tertau a component or detail of that object; the tanru as a whole refers to the detail, specifying that it is a detail of that whole and not some other.

Table 5.6. Example tanru

junla dadysli clock pendulum Hungarian
purdi vorme garden door Qabardian
purdi bitmu garden wall Quechua
moklu skapi mouth skin Imbabura Quechua lips
nazbi kevna nose hole Imbabura Quechua nostril
karce xislu automobile wheel Chinese
jipci pimlu chicken feather Chinese
vinji rebla airplane tail Chinese

Table 5.7. Mini-Glossary

dadysli

hang-oscillator


Conversely: the seltau specifies a characteristic or important detail of the object described by the tertau; objects described by the tanru as a whole are differentiated from other similar objects by this detail.

Table 5.8. Example tanru

pixra cukta picture book
kerfa silka hair silk Karaitic velvet
plise tapla apple cake Turkish
dadysli junla pendulum clock Hungarian

Table 5.9. Mini-Glossary

dadysli

hang-oscillator


The tertau specifies a general class of object (a genus), and the seltau specifies a sub-class of that class (a species):

Table 5.10. Example tanru

ckunu tricu pine tree Hungarian,Turkish,Hopi

The tertau specifies an object of possession, and the seltau may specify the possessor (the possession may be intrinsic or otherwise). In English, these compounds have an explicit possessive element in them: lion's mane, child's foot, noble's cow.

Table 5.11. Example tanru

cinfo kerfa lion mane Korean,Turkish,Hungarian,Udmurt,Qabardian
verba jamfu child foot Swedish
nixli tuple girl leg Swedish
cinfo jamfu lion foot Quechua
danlu skapi animal skin Ewe
ralju zdani chief house Ewe
jmive munje living world Sanskrit
nobli bakni noble cow Sanskrit
nolraitru ralju king chief Sanskrit emperor

Table 5.12. Mini-Glossary

nolraitru

nobly-superlative-ruler


The tertau specifies a habitat, and the seltau specifies the inhabitant:

Table 5.13. Example tanru

lanzu tumla family land

The tertau specifies a causative agent, and the seltau specifies the effect of that cause:

Table 5.14. Example tanru

kalselvi'i gapci tear gas Hungarian
terbi'a jurme disease germ Turkish
fenki litki crazy liquid Hopi whisky
pinca litki urine liquid Hopi beer

Table 5.15. Mini-Glossary

kalselvi'i

eye-excreted-thing

terbi'a

disease


Conversely: the tertau specifies an effect, and the seltau specifies its cause.

Table 5.16. Example tanru

djacu barna water mark Chinese

The tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the purpose of that instrument:

Table 5.17. Example tanru

taxfu dadgreku garment rack Chinese
tergu'i ti'otci lamp shade Chinese
xirma zdani horse house Chinese stall
nuzba tanbo news board Chinese bulletin board

Table 5.18. Mini-Glossary

dadgreku

hang-frame

tergu'i

source of illumination

ti'otci

shadow-tool


More vaguely: the tertau specifies an instrument, and the seltau specifies the object of the purpose for which that instrument is used:

Table 5.19. Example tanru

cpina rokci pepper stone Quechua stone for grinding pepper
jamfu djacu foot water Sanskrit water for washing the feet
grana mudri post wood Sanskrit wood for making a post
moklu djacu mouth water Hungarian water for washing the mouth
lanme gerku sheep dog dog for working sheep

The tertau specifies a product from some source, and the seltau specifies the source of the product:

Table 5.20. Example tanru

moklu djacu mouth water Abazin,Qabardian saliva
ractu mapku rabbit hat Russian
jipci sovda chicken egg Chinese
sikcurnu silka silkworm silk Chinese
mlatu kalci cat feces Chinese
bifce lakse bee wax Chinese beeswax
cribe rectu bear meat Turkish,Korean,Hungarian,Udmurt,Abazin
solxrula grasu sunflower oil Turkish,Korean,Hungarian,Udmurt,Abazin
bifce jisra bee juice Hopi honey
tatru litki breast liquid Hopi milk
kanla djacu eye water Korean tear

Table 5.21. Mini-Glossary

sikcurnu

silk-worm

solxrula

solar-flower


Conversely: the tertau specifies the source of a product, and the seltau specifies the product:

Table 5.22. Example tanru

silna jinto salt well Chinese
kolme terkakpa coal mine Chinese
ctile jinto oil well Chinese

Table 5.23. Mini-Glossary

terkakpa

source of digging


The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies the material from which the object is made. This case is especially interesting, because the referent of the tertau may normally be made from just one kind of material, which is then overridden in the tanru.

Table 5.24. Example tanru

rokci cinfo stone lion
snime nanmu snow man Hungarian
kliti cipni clay bird
blaci kanla glass eye Hungarian
blaci kanla glass eye Quechua spectacles
solji sicni gold coin Turkish
solji junla gold watch Turkish,Korean,Hungarian
solji djine gold ring Udmurt,Abazin,Quechua
rokci zdani stone house Imbabura Quechua
mudri zdani wood house Ewe wooden house
rokci bitmu stone wall Ewe
solji carce gold chariot Sanskrit
mudri xarci wood weapon Sanskrit wooden weapon
cmaro'i dargu pebble road Chinese
sudysrasu cutci straw shoe Chinese

Table 5.25. Mini-Glossary

cmaro'i

small-rock

sudysrasu

dry-grass


Note: the two senses of blaci kanla can be discriminated as:

Table 5.26. Example tanru

blaci kanla bo tarmi glass (eye shape) glass eye
blaci kanla bo sidju glass (eye helper) spectacles

The tertau specifies a typical object used to measure a quantity and the seltau specifies something measured. The tanru as a whole refers to a given quantity of the thing being measured. English does not have compounds of this form, as a rule.

Table 5.27. Example tanru

tumla spisa land piece Turkish piece of land
tcati kabri tea cup Korean,Abazin cup of tea
nanba spisa bread piece Korean piece of bread
bukpu spisa cloth piece Udmurt,Abazin piece of cloth
djacu calkyguzme water calabash Ewe calabash of water

Table 5.28. Mini-Glossary

calkyguzme

shell-fruit, calabash


The tertau specifies an object with certain implicit properties, and the seltau overrides one of those implicit properties:

Table 5.29. Example tanru

kensa bloti spaceship
bakni verba cattle child Ewe calf

The seltau specifies a whole, and the tertau specifies a part which normally is associated with a different whole. The tanru then refers to a part of the seltau which stands in the same relationship to the whole seltau as the tertau stands to its typical whole.

Table 5.30. Example tanru

kosta degji coat finger Hungarian coat sleeve
denci genja tooth root Imbabura Quechua
tricu stedu tree head Imbabura Quechua treetop

The tertau specifies the producer of a certain product, and the seltau specifies the product. In this way, the tanru as a whole distinguishes its referents from other referents of the tertau which do not produce the product.

Table 5.31. Example tanru

silka curnu silkworm Turkish,Hungarian,Abazin

The tertau specifies an object, and the seltau specifies another object which has a characteristic property. The tanru as a whole refers to those referents of the tertau which possess the property.

Table 5.32. Example tanru

sonci manti soldier ant
ninmu bakni woman cattle Imbabura Quechua cow
mamta degji mother finger Imbabura Quechua thumb
cifnu degji baby finger Imbabura Quechua pinky
pacraistu zdani hell house Sanskrit
fagri dapma fire curse Sanskrit curse destructive as fire

Table 5.33. Mini-Glossary

pacraistu

evil-superlative-site


As a particular case (when the property is that of resemblance): the seltau specifies an object which the referent of the tanru resembles.

Table 5.34. Example tanru

grutrceraso jbama cherry bomb
solji kerfa gold hair Hungarian golden hair
kanla djacu eye water Karaitic spring
bakni rokci bull stone Mongolian boulder

Table 5.35. Mini-Glossary

grutrceraso

fu'ivla for cherry based on Linnean name


The seltau specifies a place, and the tertau an object characteristically located in or at that place.

Table 5.36. Example tanru

ckana boxfo bed sheet Chinese
mrostu mojysu'a tomb monument Chinese tombstone
jubme tergusni table lamp Chinese
foldi smacu field mouse Chinese
briju ci'ajbu office desk Chinese
rirxe xirma river horse Chinese hippopotamus
xamsi gerku sea dog Chinese seal
cagyce'u zdani village house Sanskrit

Table 5.37. Mini-Glossary

mrostu

dead-site

mojysu'a

remember-structure

ci'ajbu

write-table

cagyce'u

farm-community


Specifically: the tertau is a place where the seltau is sold or made available to the public.

Table 5.38. Example tanru

cidja barja food bar Chinese restaurant
cukta barja book bar Chinese library

The seltau specifies the locus of application of the tertau.

Table 5.39. Example tanru

kanla velmikce eye medicine Chinese
jgalu grasu nail oil Chinese nail polish
denci pesxu tooth paste Chinese

Table 5.40. Mini-Glossary

velmikce

treatment used by doctor


The tertau specifies an implement used in the activity denoted by the seltau.

Table 5.41. Example tanru

me la .pinpan. bolci Ping-Pong ball Chinese

The tertau specifies a protective device against the undesirable features of the referent of the seltau.

Table 5.42. Example tanru

carvi mapku rain cap Chinese
carvi taxfu rain garment Chinese raincoat
vindu firgai poison mask Chinese gas mask

Table 5.43. Mini-Glossary

firgai

face-cover


The tertau specifies a container characteristically used to hold the referent of the seltau.

Table 5.44. Example tanru

cukta vasru book vessel Chinese satchel
vanju kabri wine cup Chinese
spatrkoka lanka coca basket Quechua
rismi dakli rice bag Ewe,Chinese
tcati kabri tea cup Chinese
ladru botpi milk bottle Chinese
rismi patxu rice pot Chinese
festi lante trash can Chinese
bifce zdani bee house Korean beehive
cladakyxa'i zdani sword house Korean sheath
manti zdani ant nest Guarani anthill

Table 5.45. Mini-Glossary

spatrkoka

fu'ivla for coca

cladakyxa'i

(long-knife)-weapon


The seltau specifies the characteristic time of the event specified by the tertau.

Table 5.46. Example tanru

vensa djedi spring day Chinese
crisa citsi summer season Chinese
cerni bumru morning fog Chinese
critu lunra autumn moon Chinese
dunra nicte winter night Chinese
nicte ckule night school Chinese

The seltau specifies a source of energy for the referent of the tertau.

Table 5.47. Example tanru

dikca tergusni electric lamp Chinese
ratni nejni atom energy Chinese
brife molki windmill Turkish,Korean,Hungarian,Udmurt,Abazin

Table 5.48. Mini-Glossary

tergusni

illumination-source


Finally, some tanru which don't fall into any of the above categories.

Table 5.49. Example tanru

ladru denci milk tooth Turkish,Hungarian,Udmurt,Qabardian
kanla denci eye tooth

It is clear that tooth is being specified, and that milk and eye act as modifiers. However, the relationship between ladru and denci is something like tooth which one has when one is drinking milk from one's mother, a relationship certainly present nowhere except in this particular concept. As for kanla denci, the relationship is not only not present on the surface, it is hardly possible to formulate it at all.

5.15. Some types of symmetrical tanru

This section deals with symmetrical tanru, where order is not important. Many of these tanru can be expressed with a logical or non-logical connective between the components.

The tanru may refer to things which are correctly specified by both tanru components. Some of these instances may also be seen as asymmetrical tanru where the seltau specifies a material. The connective je is appropriate:

Table 5.50. Example tanru

cipnrstrigi pacru'i owl demon Sanskrit
nolraitru prije royal sage Sanskrit
remna nakni human-being male Qabardian man
remna fetsi human-being female Qabardian woman
sonci tolvri soldier coward Quechua
panzi nanmu offspring man Ewe son
panzi ninmu offspring woman Ewe daughter
solji sicni gold coin Turkish
solji junla gold watch Turkish,Korean,Hungarian
solji djine gold ring Udmurt,Abazin,Quechua
rokci zdani stone house Imbabura Quechua
mudri zdani wooden house Ewe
rokci bitmu stone wall Ewe
solji carce gold chariot Sanskrit
mudri xarci wooden weapon Sanskrit
zdani tcadu home town Chinese

Table 5.51. Mini-Glossary

cipnrstrigi

fu'ivla for owl based on Linnean name

pacru'i

evil-spirit

tolvri

opposite-of-brave


The tanru may refer to all things which are specified by either of the tanru components. The connective ja is appropriate:

Table 5.52. Example tanru

nunji'a nunterji'a victory defeat Sanskrit victory or defeat
donri nicte day night Sanskrit day and night
lunra tarci moon stars Sanskrit moon and stars
patfu mamta father mother Imbabura Quechua,Kazakh,Chinese parents
tuple birka leg arm Kazakh extremity
nuncti nunpinxe eating drinking Udmurt cuisine
bersa tixnu son daughter Chinese children

Table 5.53. Mini-Glossary

nunji'a

event-of-winning

nunterji'a

event-of-losing

nuncti

event-of-eating

nunpinxe

event-of-drinking


Alternatively, the tanru may refer to things which are specified by either of the tanru components or by some more inclusive class of things which the components typify:

Table 5.54. Example tanru

curnu jalra worm beetle Mongolian insect
jalra curnu beetle worm Mongolian insect
kabri palta cup plate Kazakh crockery
jipci gunse hen goose Qabardian housefowl
xrula tricu flower tree Chinese vegetation

The tanru components specify crucial or typical parts of the referent of the tanru as a whole:

Table 5.55. Example tanru

tumla vacri land air Finnish world
moklu stedu mouth head Abazin face
sudysrasu cunmi hay millet Qabardian agriculture
gugde ciste state system Mongolian politics
prenu so'imei people multitude Mongolian masses
djacu dertu water earth Chinese climate

Table 5.56. Mini-Glossary

sudysrasu

dry-grass

so'imei

manysome


5.16. Pretty little girls' school : forty ways to say it

The following examples show every possible grouping arrangement of melbi cmalu nixli ckule using bo or keke'e for grouping and je or je bo for logical connection. Most of these are definitely not plausible interpretations of the English phrase pretty little girls' school, especially those which describe something which is both a girl and a school.

Example 5.26, Example 5.27, Example 5.28, Example 5.29, and Example 5.36 are repeated here as Example 5.132, Example 5.140, Example 5.148, Example 5.156, and Example 5.164 respectively. The seven examples following each of these share the same grouping pattern, but differ in the presence or absence of je at each possible site. Some of the examples have more than one Lojban version. In that case, they differ only in grouping mechanism, and are always equivalent in meaning.

The logical connective je is associative: that is, A and (B and C) is the same as (A and B) and C. Therefore, some of the examples have the same meaning as others. In particular, Example 5.139, Example 5.147, Example 5.155, Example 5.163, and Example 5.171 all have the same meaning because all four brivla are logically connected and the grouping is simply irrelevant. Other equivalent forms are noted in the examples themselves. However, if je were replaced by naja or jo or most of the other logical connectives, the meanings would become distinct.

It must be emphasized that, because of the ambiguity of all tanru, the English translations are by no means definitive – they represent only one possible interpretation of the corresponding Lojban sentence.

Example 5.132. 

melbi cmalu nixli ckule
((pretty type-of little) type-of girl) type-of school

school for girls who are beautifully small


Example 5.133. 

melbi je cmalu nixli ckule
((pretty and little) type-of girl) type-of school

school for girls who are beautiful and small


Example 5.134. 

melbi bo cmalu je nixli ckule
((pretty type-of little) and girl) type-of school

school for girls and for beautifully small things


Example 5.135. 

ke melbi cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule
(( pretty type-of little) type-of girl ) and school

thing which is a school and a beautifully small girl


Example 5.136. 

melbi je cmalu je nixli ckule
((pretty and little) and girl) type-of school

school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls

Note: same as Example 5.152


Example 5.137. 

melbi bo cmalu je nixli je ckule
((pretty type-of little) and girl) and school

thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl

Note: same as Example 5.145


Example 5.138. 

ke melbi je cmalu nixli ke'e je ckule
(( pretty and little) type-of girl ) and school

thing which is a school and a girl who is both beautiful and small


Example 5.139. 

melbi je cmalu je nixli je ckule
((pretty and little) and girl) and school

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school


Example 5.140. 

melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule
(pretty type-of little) type-of (girl type-of school)

girls' school which is beautifully small


Example 5.141. 

melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule
(pretty and little) type-of (girl type-of school)

girls' school which is beautiful and small


Example 5.142. 

melbi cmalu nixli je ckule
(pretty type-of little) type-of (girl and school)

something which is a girl and a school which is beautifully small


Example 5.143. 

melbi bo cmalu je nixli bo ckule
(pretty type-of little) and (girl type-of school)

something which is beautifully small and a girls' school


Example 5.144. 

melbi je cmalu nixli je ckule
(pretty and little) type-of (girl and school)

a pretty and little type of thing which is both a girl and a school


Example 5.145. 

melbi bo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule
(pretty type-of little) and (girl and school)

thing which is beautifully small, a school, and a girl


Note: same as Example 5.137

Example 5.146. 

melbi jebo cmalu je nixli bo ckule
(pretty and little) and (girl type-of school)

thing which is beautiful and small and a girl's school


Note: same as Example 5.161

Example 5.147. 

melbi jebo cmalu je nixli jebo ckule
(pretty and little) and (girl and school)

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school


Example 5.148. 

melbi cmalu bo nixli ckule
(pretty type-of (little type-of girl)) type-of school

school for beautiful girls who are small


Example 5.149. 

melbi cmalu je nixli ckule
(pretty type-of (little and girl)) type-of school

school for beautiful things which are small and are girls


Example 5.150. 

melbi je cmalu bo nixli ckule
(pretty and (little type-of girl)) type-of school

school for things which are beautiful and are small girls


Example 5.151. 

ke melbi cmalu bo nixli ke'e je ckule
melbi bo cmalu bo nixli je ckule
( pretty type-of (little type-of girl )) and school

thing which is a school and a small girl who is beautiful


Example 5.152. 

melbi je cmalu jebo nixli ckule
(pretty and (little and girl)) type-of school

school for things which are beautiful, small, and girls


Note: same as Example 5.136

Example 5.153. 

melbi je cmalu bo nixli je ckule
(pretty and (little type-of girl)) and school

thing which is beautiful, a small girl, and a school


Note: same as Example 5.169

Example 5.154. 

ke melbi cmalu je nixli ke'e je ckule
( pretty type-of (little and girl )) and school

thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a school


Example 5.155. 

melbi je cmalu jebo nixli je ckule
(pretty and (little and girl)) and school

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school


Example 5.156. 

melbi cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
melbi ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]
pretty type-of (little type-of (girl type-of school ) )

small school for girls which is beautiful


Example 5.157. 

melbi ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]
pretty type-of (little type-of (girl and school ))

small thing, both a girl and a school, which is beautiful


Example 5.158. 

melbi cmalu je nixli bo ckule
pretty type-of (little and (girl type-of school))

thing which is beautifully small and a girls' school that is beautiful


Example 5.159. 

melbi je cmalu bo nixli bo ckule
melbi je ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]
melbi je ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]
pretty and ( little type-of (girl type-of school ) )

thing which is beautiful and a small type of girls' school


Example 5.160. 

melbi cmalu je nixli jebo ckule
melbi cmalu je ke nixli je ckule [ke'e]
pretty type-of (little and ( girl and school ))

thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school


Note: same as Example 5.168

Example 5.161. 

melbi je cmalu jebo nixli bo ckule
melbi je ke cmalu je nixli bo ckule [ke'e]
pretty and ( little and (girl type-of school ))

thing which is beautiful, small and a girls' school


Note: same as Example 5.146

Example 5.162. 

melbi je ke cmalu nixli je ckule [ke'e]
pretty and ( little type-of (girl and school ))

beautiful thing which is a small girl and a small school


Example 5.163. 

melbi jebo cmalu jebo nixli jebo ckule
pretty and (little and (girl and school))

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school


Example 5.164. 

melbi ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]
pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) type-of school )

beautiful school for small girls


Example 5.165. 

melbi ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]
pretty type-of ((little and girl) type-of school

beautiful school for things which are small and are girls


Example 5.166. 

melbi ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]
pretty type-of ((little type-of girl) and school )

beautiful thing which is a small girl and a school


Example 5.167. 

melbi je ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]
pretty and (( little type-of girl) type-of school )

thing which is beautiful and a school for small girls


Example 5.168. 

melbi cmalu je nixli je ckule
pretty type-of ((little and girl) and school)

thing which is beautifully small, a beautiful girl, and a beautiful school


Note: same as Example 5.160

Example 5.169. 

melbi je ke cmalu bo nixli je ckule [ke'e]
pretty and (( little type-of girl) and school )

thing which is beautiful, a small girl and a school


Note: same as Example 5.153

Example 5.170. 

melbi je ke cmalu je nixli ckule [ke'e]
pretty and (( little and girl) type-of school )

thing which is beautiful and is a small school and a girls' school


Example 5.171. 

melbi je ke cmalu je nixli je ckule [ke'e]
pretty and (( little and girl) and school )

thing which is beautiful, small, a girl, and a school


Chapter 6. To speak of many things: the Lojban sumti

The picture for chapter 6

6.1. The five kinds of simple sumti

If you understand anything about Lojban, you know what a sumti is by now, right? An argument, one of those things that fills the places of simple Lojban sentences like:

Example 6.1. 

mi klama le zarci
I go-to the market

In Example 6.1 , mi and le zarci are the sumti. It is easy to see that these two sumti are not of the same kind: mi is a pro-sumti (the Lojban analogue of a pronoun) referring to the speaker, whereas le zarci is a description which refers to something described as being a market.

There are five kinds of simple sumti provided by Lojban:

  1. descriptions like le zarci , which usually begin with a descriptor (called a gadri in Lojban) such as le ;

  2. pro-sumti, such as mi ;

  3. names, such as la .lojban. , which usually begin with la ;

  4. quotations, which begin with lu , lo'u , zo , or zoi ;

  5. pure numbers, which usually begin with li.

Here are a few examples of each kind of sumti:

Example 6.2. 

e'osai ko sarji la .lojban.
[request] [!] You [imperative] support that-named Lojban.

Please support Lojban!


Example 6.2 exhibits ko , a pro-sumti; and la .lojban. , a name.

Example 6.3. 

mi cusku lu e'osai li'u le tcidu
I express [quote] [request] [!] [unquote] to-the reader.

I express Please! to the reader.


Example 6.3 exhibits mi , a pro-sumti; lu e'osai li'u , a quotation; and le tcidu , a description.

Example 6.4. 

ti mitre li ci
This measures-in-meters the-number three.

This is three meters long.


Example 6.4 exhibits ti , a pro-sumti; and li ci , a number.

Most of this chapter is about descriptions, as they have the most complicated syntax and usage. Some attention is also given to names, which are closely interwoven with descriptions. Pro-sumti, numbers, and quotations are described in more detail in Chapter 7 , Chapter 18 , and Chapter 19 respectively, so this chapter only gives summaries of their forms and uses. See Section 6.13 through Section 6.15 for these summaries.

6.2. The three basic description types

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

le

LE

the, the one(s) described as

lo

LE

some, some of those which really are

la

LA

the one(s) named

ku

KU

elidable terminator for LE, LA

The syntax of descriptions is fairly complex, and not all of it can be explained within the confines of this chapter: relative clauses, in particular, are discussed in Chapter 8. However, most descriptions have just two components: a descriptor belonging to selma'o LE or LA, and a selbri. (The difference between selma'o LE and selma'o LA is not important until Section 6.12.) Furthermore, the selbri is often just a single brivla. Here is an elementary example:

Example 6.5. 

le zarci
one-or-more-specific-things-each-of-which-I-describe-as being-a-market

the market


The long gloss for le is of course far too long to use most of the time, and in fact le is quite close in meaning to English the. It has particular implications, however, which the does not have.

The general purpose of all descriptors is to create a sumti which might occur in the x1 place of the selbri belonging to the description. Thus le zarci conveys something which might be found in the x1 place of zarci , namely a market.

The specific purpose of le is twofold. First, it indicates that the speaker has one or more specific markets in mind (whether or not the listener knows which ones they are). Second, it also indicates that the speaker is merely describing the things he or she has in mind as markets, without being committed to the truth of that description.

Example 6.6. 

le zarci cu barda
One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as markets is/are-big.

The market is big.

The markets are big.


Note that English-speakers must state whether a reference to markets is to just one ( the market) or to more than one ( the markets). Lojban requires no such forced choice, so both colloquial translations of Example 6.6 are valid. Only the context can specify which is meant. (This rule does not mean that Lojban has no way of specifying the number of markets in such a case: that mechanism is explained in Section 6.7.)

Now consider the following strange-looking example:

Example 6.7. 

le nanmu cu ninmu
One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as men is/are-women.

The man is a woman.

The men are women.


Example 6.7 is not self-contradictory in Lojban, because le nanmu merely means something or other which, for my present purposes, I choose to describe as a man, whether or not it really is a man. A plausible instance would be: someone we had assumed to be a man at a distance turned out to be actually a woman on closer observation. Example 6.7 is what I would say to point out my observation to you.

In all descriptions with le , the listener is presumed to either know what I have in mind or else not to be concerned at present (perhaps I will give more identifying details later). In particular, I might be pointing at the supposed man or men: Example 6.7 would then be perfectly intelligible, since le nanmu merely clarifies that I am pointing at the supposed man, not at a landscape, or a nose, which happens to lie in the same direction.

The second descriptor dealt with in this section is lo. Unlike le , lo is nonspecific:

Example 6.8. 

lo zarci
one-or-more-of-all-the-things-which-really are-markets

a market

some markets


Again, there are two colloquial English translations. The effect of using lo in Example 6.8 is to refer generally to one or more markets, without being specific about which. Unlike le zarci , lo zarci must refer to something which actually is a market (that is, which can appear in the x1 place of a truthful bridi whose selbri is zarci). Thus

Example 6.9. 

lo nanmu cu ninmu
That-which-really-is a-man is-a-woman.

Some man is a woman.

Some men are women.


must be false in Lojban, given that there are no objects in the real world which are both men and women. Pointing at some specific men or women would not make Example 6.9 true, because those specific individuals are no more both-men-and-women than any others. In general, lo refers to whatever individuals meet its description.

The last descriptor of this section is la , which indicates that the selbri which follows it has been dissociated from its normal meaning and is being used as a name. Like le descriptions, la descriptions are implicitly restricted to those I have in mind. (Do not confuse this use of la with its use before regular Lojbanized names, which is discussed in Section 6.12.) For example:

Example 6.10. 

la cribe pu finti le lisri
That-named bear [past] creates the story.

Bear wrote the story.


In Example 6.10 , la cribe refers to someone whose naming predicate is cribe , i.e. Bear. In English, most names don't mean anything, or at least not anything obvious. The name Frank coincides with the English word frank , meaning honest , and so one way of translating Frank ate some cheese into Lojban would be:

Example 6.11. 

la stace pu citka lo cirla
That-named Honest/Frank [past] eats some cheese.

English-speakers typically would not do this, as we tend to be more attached to the sound of our names than their meaning, even if the meaning (etymological or current) is known. Speakers of other languages may feel differently. (In point of fact, Frank originally meant the free one rather than the honest one.)

It is important to note the differences between Example 6.10 and the following:

Example 6.12. 

le cribe pu finti le lisri
One-or-more-specific-things-which-I-describe-as bears [past] creates the story.

The bear(s) wrote the story.


Example 6.13. 

lo cribe pu finti le lisri
One-or-more-of-the-things-which-really are-bears [past] creates the story.

A bear wrote the story.

Some bears wrote the story.


Example 6.12 is about a specific bear or bearlike thing(s), or thing(s) which the speaker (perhaps whimsically or metaphorically) describes as a bear (or more than one); Example 6.13 is about one or more of the really existing, objectively defined bears. In either case, though, each of them must have contributed to the writing of the story, if more than one bear (or bear) is meant.

(The notion of a really existing, objectively defined bear raises certain difficulties. Is a panda bear a real bear ? How about a teddy bear? In general, the answer is yes. Lojban gismu are defined as broadly as possible, allowing tanru and lujvo to narrow down the definition. There probably are no necessary and sufficient conditions for defining what is and what is not a bear that can be pinned down with complete precision: the real world is fuzzy. In borderline cases, le may communicate better than lo.)

So while Example 6.10 could easily be true (there is a real writer named Greg Bear), and Example 6.12 could be true if the speaker is sufficiently peculiar in what he or she describes as a bear, Example 6.13 is certainly false.

Similarly, compare the following two examples, which are analogous to Example 6.12 and Example 6.13 respectively:

Example 6.14. 

le remna pu finti le lisri
Those-described-as a-human [past] writes that-described-as a-story.

The human being(s) wrote the story.


Example 6.15. 

lo remna pu finti le lisri
That-which-really-is a-human [past] writes that-described-as a-story.

A human being wrote the story.

Some human beings wrote the story.


Example 6.14 says who the author of the story is: one or more particular human beings that the speaker has in mind. If the topic of conversation is the story, then Example 6.14 identifies the author as someone who can be pointed out or who has been previously mentioned; whereas if the topic is a person, then le remna is in effect a shorthand reference to that person. Example 6.15 merely says that the author is human.

The elidable terminator for all descriptions is ku. It can almost always be omitted with no danger of ambiguity. The main exceptions are in certain uses of relative clauses, which are discussed in Section 8.6 , and in the case of a description immediately preceding the selbri. In this latter case, using an explicit cu before the selbri makes the ku unnecessary. There are also a few other uses of ku : in the compound negator naku (discussed in Chapter 16) and to terminate place-structure, tense, and modal tags that do not have associated sumti (discussed in Chapter 9 and Chapter 10).

6.3. Individuals and masses

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lei

LE

the mass I describe as

loi

LE

part of the mass of those which really are

lai

LA

the mass of those named

All Lojban sumti are classified by whether they refer to one of three types of objects, known as individuals , masses , and sets. The term individual is misleading when used to refer to more than one object, but no less-confusing term has as yet been found. All the descriptions in Section 6.1 and Section 6.2 refer to individuals, whether one or more than one. Consider the following example:

Example 6.16. 

le prenu cu bevri le pipno
One-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.

The person(s) carry the piano.


(Of course the second le should really get the same translation as the first, but I am putting the focus of this discussion on the first le , the one preceding prenu. I will assume that there is only one piano under discussion.)

Suppose the context of Example 6.16 is such that you can determine that I am talking about three persons. What am I claiming? I am claiming that each of the three persons carried the piano. This claim can be true if the persons carried the piano one at a time, or in turns, or in a variety of other ways. But in order for Example 6.16 to be true, I must be willing to assert that person 1 carried the piano, and that person 2 carried the piano, and that person 3 carried the piano.

But suppose I am not willing to claim that. For in fact pianos are heavy, and very few persons can carry a piano all by themselves. The most likely factual situation is that person 1 carried one end of the piano, and person 2 the other end, while person 3 either held up the middle or else supervised the whole operation without actually lifting anything. The correct way of expressing such a situation in Lojban is:

Example 6.17. 

lei prenu cu bevri le pipno
The-mass-of-one-or-more-of-those-I-describe-as persons carry the piano.

The person(s) carry the piano.


Here the same three persons are treated not as individuals, but as a so-called mass entity , or just mass. A mass has the properties of each individual which composes it, and may have other properties of its own as well. This can lead to apparent contradictions. Thus suppose in the piano-moving example above that person 1 has fair skin, whereas person 2 has dark skin. Then it is correct to say that the person-mass has both fair skin and dark skin. Using the mass descriptor lei signals that ordinary logical reasoning is not applicable: contradictions can be maintained, and all sorts of other peculiarities may exist. However, we can safely say that a mass inherits only the component properties that are relevant to it; it would be ludicrous to say that a mass of two persons is of molecular dimensions, simply because some of the parts (namely, the molecules) of the persons are that small.

The descriptors loi and lai are analogous to lo and la respectively, but refer to masses either by property ( loi) or by name ( lai). A classic example of loi use is:

Example 6.18. 

loi cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a
Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-lions dwell-in the African-land.

The lion dwells in Africa.

Lions dwell in Africa.


The difference between lei and loi is that lei cinfo refers to a mass of specific individuals which the speaker calls lions, whereas loi cinfo refers to some part of the mass of all those individuals which actually are lions. The restriction to some part of the mass allows statements like Example 6.18 to be true even though some lions do not dwell in Africa – they live in various zoos around the world. On the other hand, Example 6.18 doesn't actually say that most lions live in Africa: equally true is

Example 6.19. 

loi glipre
Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really are-English-persons
cu xabju le fi'ortu'a
dwell-in the African-land.

The English dwell in Africa.


since there is at least one English person living there. Section 6.4 explains another method of saying what is usually meant by The lion lives in Africa which does imply that living in Africa is normal, not exceptional, for lions.

Note that the Lojban mass articles are sometimes translated by English plurals (the most usual case), sometimes by English singulars (when the singular is used to express typicalness or abstraction), and sometimes by singulars with no article:

Example 6.20. 

loi matne cu ranti
Part-of-the-mass-of-that-which-really-is a-quantity-of-butter is-soft.

Butter is soft.


Of course, some butter is hard (for example, if it is frozen butter), so the part-of implication of loi becomes once again useful. The reason this mechanism works is that the English words like butter , which are seen as already describing masses, are translated in Lojban by non-mass forms. The place structure of matne is x1 is a quantity of butter from source x2 , so the single English word butter is translated as something like a part of the mass formed from all the quantities of butter that exist. (Note that the operation of forming a mass entity does not imply, in Lojban, that the components of the mass are necessarily close to one another or even related in any way other than conceptually. Masses are formed by the speaker's intention to form a mass, and can in principle contain anything.)

The mass name descriptor lai is used in circumstances where we wish to talk about a mass of things identified by a name which is common to all of them. It is not used to identify a mass by a single name peculiar to it. Thus the mass version of Example 6.9 ,

Example 6.21. 

lai cribe pu finti le vi cukta
The-mass-of-those-named bear [past] creates the nearby book.

The Bears wrote this book.


in a context where la cribe would be understood as plural, would mean that either Tom Bear or Fred Bear (to make up some names) might have written the book, or that Tom and Fred might have written it as collaborators. Using la instead of lai in Example 6.21 would give the implication that each of Tom and Fred, considered individually, had written it.

6.4. Masses and sets

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

le'i

LE

the set described as

lo'i

LE

the set of those which really are

la'i

LA

the set of those named

Having said so much about masses, let us turn to sets. Sets are easier to understand than masses, but are more rarely used. Like a mass, a set is an abstract object formed from a number of individuals; however, the properties of a set are not derived from any of the properties of the individuals that compose it.

Sets have properties like cardinality (how many elements in the set), membership (the relationship between a set and its elements), and set inclusion (the relationship between two sets, one of which – the superset – contains all the elements of the other – the subset). The set descriptors le'i , lo'i and la'i correspond exactly to the mass descriptors lei , loi , and lai except that normally we talk of the whole of a set, not just part of it. Here are some examples contrasting lo , loi , and lo'i :

Example 6.22. 

lo ratcu cu bunre
One-or-more-of-those-which-really-are rats are-brown.

Some rats are brown.


Example 6.23. 

loi ratcu cu cmalu
Part-of-the-mass-of-those-which-really-are rats are-small.

Rats are small.


Example 6.24. 

lo'i ratcu cu barda
The-set-of rats is-large.

There are a lot of rats.


The mass of rats is small because at least one rat is small; the mass of rats is also large; the set of rats, though, is unquestionably large – it has billions of members. The mass of rats is also brown, since some of its components are; but it would be incorrect to call the set of rats brown – brown-ness is not the sort of property that sets possess.

Lojban speakers should generally think twice before employing the set descriptors. However, certain predicates have places that require set sumti to fill them. For example, the place structure of fadni is:

x1 is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 among the members of set x3

Why is it necessary for the x3 place of fadni to be a set? Because it makes no sense for an individual to be typical of another individual: an individual is typical of a group. In order to make sure that the bridi containing fadni is about an entire group, its x3 place must be filled with a set:

Example 6.25. 

mi fadni zo'e lo'i lobypli
I am-ordinary in-property [unspecified] among-the-set-of Lojban-users.

I am a typical Lojban user.


Note that the x2 place has been omitted; I am not specifying in exactly which way I am typical – whether in language knowledge, or age, or interests, or something else. If lo'i were changed to lo in Example 6.25 , the meaning would be something like I am typical of some Lojban user , which is nonsense.

6.5. Descriptors for typical objects

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lo'e

LE

the typical

le'e

LE

the stereotypical

As promised in Section 6.3 , Lojban has a method for discriminating between the lion who lives in Africa and the Englishman who, generally speaking, doesn't live in Africa even though some Englishmen do. The descriptor lo'e means the typical , as in

Example 6.26. 

lo'e cinfo cu xabju le fi'ortu'a
The-typical lion dwells-in the African-land.

The lion dwells in Africa.


What is this typical lion ? Surely it is not any particular lion, because no lion has all of the typical characteristics, and (worse yet) some characteristics that all real lions have can't be viewed as typical. For example, all real lions are either male or female, but it would be bizarre to suppose that the typical lion is either one. So the typical lion has no particular sex, but does have a color (golden brown), a residence (Africa), a diet (game), and so on. Likewise we can say that

Example 6.27. 

lo'e glipre cu xabju
The-typical English-person dwells-in
le fi'ortu'a na.e le gligugde
the African-land (Not!) and the English-country.

The typical English person dwells not in Africa but in England.


The relationship between lo'e cinfo and lo'i cinfo may be explained thus: the typical lion is an imaginary lion-abstraction which best exemplifies the members of the set of lions. There is a similar relationship between le'e and le'i :

Example 6.28. 

le'e xelso merko cu gusta ponse
The-stereotypical Greek-type-of American is-a-restaurant-type-of owner.

Lots of Greek-Americans own restaurants.


Here we are concerned not with the actual set of Greek-Americans, but with the set of those the speaker has in mind, which is typified by one (real or imaginary) who owns a restaurant. The word stereotypical is often derogatory in English, but le'e need not be derogatory in Lojban: it simply suggests that the example is typical in the speaker's imagination rather than in some objectively agreed-upon way. Of course, different speakers may disagree about what the features of the typical lion are (some would include having a short intestine, whereas others would know nothing of lions' intestines), so the distinction between lo'e cinfo and le'e cinfo may be very fine.

Furthermore,

Example 6.29. 

le'e skina cu se finti ne'i la .xali,uyd.
The-stereotypical movie is-invented in that-named Hollywood.

is probably true to an American, but might be false (not the stereotype) to someone living in India or Russia.

Note that there is no naming equivalent of lo'e and le'e , because there is no need, as a rule, for a typical George or a typical Smith. People or things who share a common name do not, in general, have any other common attributes worth mentioning.

6.6. Quantified sumti

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro

PA

all of/each of

su'o

PA

at least (one of)

Quantifiers tell us how many: in the case of quantifiers with sumti, how many things we are talking about. In Lojban, quantifiers are expressed by numbers and mathematical expressions: a large topic discussed in some detail in Chapter 18. For the purposes of this chapter, a simplified treatment will suffice. Our examples will employ either the simple Lojban numbers pa , re , ci , vo , and mu , meaning one , two , three , four , five respectively, or else one of four special quantifiers, two of which are discussed in this section and listed above. These four quantifiers are important because every Lojban sumti has either one or two of them implicitly present in it – which one or two depends on the particular kind of sumti. There is more explanation of implicit quantifiers later in this section. (The other two quantifiers, piro and pisu'o , are explained in Section 6.7.)

Every Lojban sumti may optionally be preceded by an explicit quantifier. The purpose of this quantifier is to specify how many of the things referred to by the sumti are being talked about. Here are some simple examples contrasting sumti with and without explicit quantifiers:

Example 6.30. 

do cadzu le bisli
You walk-on the ice.

Example 6.31. 

re do cadzu le bisli
Two-of you walk-on the ice.

The difference between Example 6.30 and Example 6.31 is the presence of the explicit quantifier re in the latter example. Although re by itself means two , when used as a quantifier it means two-of. Out of the group of listeners (the number of which isn't stated), two (we are not told which ones) are asserted to be walkers on the ice. Implicitly, the others (if any) are not walkers on the ice. In Lojban, you cannot say I own three shoes if in fact you own four shoes. Numbers need never be specified, but if they are specified they must be correct.

(This rule does not mean that there is no way to specify a number which is vague. The sentence

Example 6.32. 

mi ponse su'o ci cutci
I possess at-least three shoes.

is true if you own three shoes, or four, or indeed any larger number. More details on vague numbers appear in the discussion of mathematical expressions in Chapter 18.)

Now consider Example 6.30 again. How many of the listeners are claimed to walk on the ice? The answer turns out to be: all of them, however many that is. So Example 6.30 and Example 6.33 :

Example 6.33. 

ro do cadzu le bisli
All-of you walk-on the ice.

turn out to mean exactly the same thing. This is a safe strategy, because if one of my listeners doesn't turn out to be walking on the ice, I can safely claim that I didn't intend that person to be a listener! And in fact, all of the personal pro-sumti such as mi and mi'o and ko obey the same rule. We say that personal pro-sumti have a so-called implicit quantifier of ro (all). This just means that if no quantifier is given explicitly, the meaning is the same as if the implicit quantifier had been used.

Not all sumti have ro as the implicit quantifier, however. Consider the quotation in:

Example 6.34. 

mi cusku lu do cadzu le bisli li'u
I express [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].

I say, You walk on the ice.


What is the implicit quantifier of the quotation lu do cadzu le bisli li'u ? Surely not ro. If ro were supplied explicitly, thus:

Example 6.35. 

mi cusku ro lu do cadzu le bisli li'u
I express all-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].

the meaning would be something like I say every occurrence of the sentence 'You walk on the ice'. Of course I don't say every occurrence of it, only some occurrences. One might suppose that Example 6.34 means that I express exactly one occurrence, but it is more Lojbanic to leave the number unspecified, as with other sumti. We can say definitely, however, that I say it at least once.

The Lojban cmavo meaning at least is su'o , and if no ordinary number follows, su'o means at least once. (See Example 6.32 for the use of su'o with an ordinary number). Therefore, the explicitly quantified version of Example 6.34 is

Example 6.36. 

mi cusku su'o lu do cadzu le bisli li'u
I express at-least-one-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].

I say one or more instances of You walk on the ice.

I say You walk on the ice.


If an explicit ordinary number such as re were to appear, it would have to convey an exact expression, so

Example 6.37. 

mi cusku re lu do cadzu le bisli li'u
I express two-of [quote] you walk-on the ice [unquote].

means that I say the sentence exactly twice, neither more nor less.

6.7. Quantified descriptions

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

piro

PA

the whole of

pisu'o

PA

a part of

Like other sumti, descriptions can be quantified. When a quantifier appears before a description, it has the same meaning as one appearing before a non-description sumti: it specifies how many things, of all those referred to by the description, are being talked about in this particular bridi. Suppose that context tells us that le gerku refers to three dogs. Then we can say that exactly two of them are white as follows:

Example 6.38. 

re le gerku cu blabi
Two-of the dogs are-white.

Two of the dogs are white.


When discussing descriptions, this ordinary quantifier is called an outer quantifier , since it appears outside the description. But there is another possible location for a quantifier: between the descriptor and the selbri. This quantifier is called an inner quantifier , and its meaning is quite different: it tells the listener how many objects the description selbri characterizes.

For example, the context of Example 6.38 supposedly told us that le gerku referred to some three specific dogs. This assumption can be made certain with the use of an explicit inner quantifier:

Example 6.39. 

re le ci gerku cu blabi
Two-of the three dogs are-white.

Two of the three dogs are white.


(As explained in the discussion of Example 6.32 , simple numbers like those in Example 6.39 must be exact: it therefore follows that the third dog cannot be white.)

You may also specify an explicit inner quantifier and leave the outer quantifier implicit:

Example 6.40. 

le ci gerku cu blabi
The three dogs are-white.

The three dogs are white.


There are rules for each of the 11 descriptors specifying what the implicit values for the inner and outer quantifiers are. They are meant to provide sensible default values when context is absent, not necessarily to prescribe hard and fast rules. The following table lists the implicit values:

le : ro le su'o all of the at-least-one described as
lo : su'o lo ro at least one of all of those which really are
la : ro la su'o all of the at least one named
lei : pisu'o lei su'o some part of the mass of the at-least-one described as
loi : pisu'o loi ro some part of the mass of all those that really are
lai : pisu'o lai su'o some part of the mass of the at-least-one named
le'i : piro le'i su'o the whole of the set of the at-least-one described as
lo'i : piro lo'i ro the whole of the set of all those that really are
la'i : piro la'i su'o the whole of the set of the at-least-one named
le'e : ro le'e su'o all the stereotypes of the at-least-one described as
lo'e : su'o lo'e ro at least one of the types of all those that really are

When examined for the first time, this table looks dreadfully arbitrary. In fact, there are quite a few regularities in it. First of all, the la-series (that is, the descriptors la , lai , and la'i) and the le-series (that is, the descriptors le , lei , le'i , and le'e) always have corresponding implicit quantifiers, so we may subsume the la-series under the le-series for the rest of this discussion: le-series cmavo will refer to both the le-series proper and to the la-series.

The rule for the inner quantifier is very simple: the lo-series cmavo (namely, lo , loi , lo'i , and lo'e) all have an implicit inner quantifier of ro , whereas the le-series cmavo all have an implicit inner quantifier of su'o.

Why? Because lo-series descriptors always refer to all of the things which really fit into the x1 place of the selbri. They are not restricted by the speaker's intention. Descriptors of the le-series, however, are so restricted, and therefore talk about some number, definite or indefinite, of objects the speaker has in mind – but never less than one.

Understanding the implicit outer quantifier requires rules of greater subtlety. In the case of mass and set descriptors, a single rule suffices for each: reference to a mass is implicitly a reference to some part of the mass; reference to a set is implicitly a reference to the whole set. Masses and sets are inherently singular objects: it makes no sense to talk about two distinct masses with the same components, or two distinct sets with the same members. Therefore, the largest possible outer quantifier for either a set description or a mass description is piro , the whole of it.

(Pedantically, it is possible that the mass of water molecules composing an ice cube might be thought of as different from the same mass of water molecules in liquid form, in which case we might talk about re lei djacu , two masses of the water-bits I have in mind.)

Why pi - ? It is the Lojban cmavo for the decimal point. Just as pimu means .5 , and when used as a quantifier specifies a portion consisting of five tenths of a thing, piro means a portion consisting of the all-ness – the entirety – of a thing. Similarly, pisu'o specifies a portion consisting of at least one part of a thing, i.e. some of it.

Smaller quantifiers are possible for sets, and refer to subsets. Thus pimu le'i nanmu is a subset of the set of men I have in mind; we don't know precisely which elements make up this subset, but it must have half the size of the full set. This is the best way to say half of the men ; saying pimu le nanmu would give us a half-portion of one of them instead! Of course, the result of pimu le'i nanmu is still a set; if you need to refer to the individuals of the subset, you must say so (see lu'a in Section 6.10).

The case of outer quantifiers for individual descriptors (including le , lo , la , and the typical descriptors le'e and lo'e) is special. When we refer to specific individuals with le , we mean to refer to all of those we have in mind, so ro is appropriate as the implicit quantifier, just as it is appropriate for do. Reference to non-specific individuals with lo , however, is typically to only some of the objects which can be correctly described, and so su'o is the appropriate implicit quantifier, just as for quotations.

From the English-speaking point of view, the difference in structure between the following example using le :

Example 6.41. 

[ro] le ci gerku cu blabi
[All-of] those-described-as three dogs are-white.

The three dogs are white.


and the corresponding form with lo :

Example 6.42. 

ci lo [ro] gerku cu blabi
Three-of those-which-are [all] dogs are-white.

Three dogs are white.


looks very peculiar. Why is the number ci found as an inner quantifier in Example 6.41 and as an outer quantifier in Example 6.42 ? The number of dogs is the same in either case. The answer is that the ci in Example 6.41 is part of the specification: it tells us the actual number of dogs in the group that the speaker has in mind. In Example 6.42 , however, the dogs referred to by ... lo gerku are all the dogs that exist: the outer quantifier then restricts the number to three; which three, we cannot tell. The implicit quantifiers are chosen to avoid claiming too much or too little: in the case of le , the implicit outer quantifier ro says that each of the dogs in the restricted group is white; in the case of lo , the implicit inner quantifier simply says that three dogs, chosen from the group of all the dogs there are, are white.

Using exact numbers as inner quantifiers in lo-series descriptions is dangerous, because you are stating that exactly that many things exist which really fit the description. So examples like

Example 6.43. 

[so'o] lo ci gerku cu blabi
[some-of] those-which-really-are three dogs are-white.

are semantically anomalous; Example 6.43 claims that some dog (or dogs) is white, but also that there are just three dogs in the universe!

Nevertheless, inner quantifiers are permitted on lo descriptors for consistency's sake, and may occasionally be useful.

Note that the inner quantifier of le , even when exact, need not be truthful: le ci nanmu means what I describe as three men , not three of what I describe as men. This follows from the rule that what is described by a le description represents the speaker's viewpoint rather than the objective way things are.

6.8. Indefinite descriptions

By a quirk of Lojban syntax, it is possible to omit the descriptor lo , but never any other descriptor, from a description like that of Example 6.42 ; namely, one which has an explicit outer quantifier but no explicit inner quantifier. The following example:

Example 6.44. 

ci gerku [ku] cu blabi
Three-of-those-which-are dogs are-white.

Three dogs are white.


is equivalent in meaning to Example 6.42. Even though the descriptor is not present, the elidable terminator ku may still be used. The name indefinite description for this syntactic form is historically based: of course, it is no more and no less indefinite than its counterpart with an explicit lo. Indefinite descriptions were introduced into the language in order to imitate the syntax of English and other natural languages.

Indefinite descriptions must fit this mold exactly: there is no way to make one which does not have an explicit outer quantifier (thus *gerku cu blabi is ungrammatical), or which has an explicit inner quantifier (thus *reboi ci gerku cu blabi is also ungrammatical – re ci gerku cu blabi is fine, but means 23 dogs are white).

Note: Example 6.32 also contains an indefinite description, namely su'o ci cutci ; another version of that example using an explicit lo would be:

Example 6.45. 

mi ponse su'o ci lo cutci
I possess at-least three things-which-really-are shoes

I own three (or more) shoes.


6.9. sumti-based descriptions

As stated in Section 6.2 , most descriptions consist of just a descriptor and a selbri. (In this chapter, the selbri have always been single gismu, but of course any selbri, however complex, can be employed in a description. The syntax and semantics of selbri are explained in Chapter 5.) In the intervening sections, inner and outer quantifiers have been added to the syntax. Now it is time to discuss a description of a radically different kind: the sumti-based description.

A sumti-based description has a sumti where the selbri would normally be, and the inner quantifier is required – it cannot be implicit. An outer quantifier is permitted but not required.

A full theory of sumti-based descriptions has yet to be worked out. One common case, however, is well understood. Compare the following:

Example 6.46. 

re do cu nanmu
Two-of you are-men.

Example 6.47. 

le re do cu nanmu
The two-of you are-men.

Example 6.46 simply specifies that of the group of listeners, size unknown, two are men. Example 6.47 , which has the sumti-based description le re do , says that of the two listeners, all (the implicit outer quantifier ro) are men. So in effect the inner quantifier re gives the number of individuals which the inner sumti do refers to.

Here is another group of examples:

Example 6.48. 

re le ci cribe cu bunre
Two-of the three bears are-brown.

Example 6.49. 

le re le ci cribe cu bunre
The two-of the three bears are-brown.

Example 6.50. 

pa le re le ci cribe cu bunre
One-of the two-of the three bears is-brown.

In each case, le ci cribe restricts the bears (or alleged bears) being talked of to some group of three which the speaker has in mind. Example 6.48 says that two of them (which two is not stated) are brown. Example 6.49 says that a specific pair of them are brown. Example 6.50 says that of a specific pair chosen from the original three, one or the other of that pair is brown.

6.10. sumti qualifiers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

la'e

LAhE

something referred to by

lu'e

LAhE

a reference to

tu'a

LAhE

an abstraction involving

lu'a

LAhE

an individual/member/component of

lu'i

LAhE

a set formed from

lu'o

LAhE

a mass formed from

vu'i

LAhE

a sequence formed from

na'ebo

NAhE+BO

something other than

to'ebo

NAhE+BO

the opposite of

no'ebo

NAhE+BO

the neutral form of

je'abo

NAhE+BO

that which indeed is

lu'u

LUhU

elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE+BO

Well, that's quite a list of cmavo. What are they all about?

The above cmavo and compound cmavo are called the sumti qualifiers. All of them are either single cmavo of selma'o LAhE, or else compound cmavo involving a scalar negation cmavo of selma'o NAhE immediately followed by bo of selma'o BO. Syntactically, you can prefix a sumti qualifier to any sumti and produce another simple sumti. (You may need to add the elidable terminator lu'u to show where the qualified sumti ends.)

Semantically, sumti qualifiers represent short forms of certain common special cases. Suppose you want to say I see 'The Red Pony' , where The Red Pony is the title of a book. How about:

Example 6.51. 

mi viska lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u
I see [quote] the red small-horse [unquote].

But Example 6.51 doesn't work: it says that you see a piece of text The Red Pony. That might be all right if you were looking at the cover of the book, where the words The Red Pony are presumably written. (More precisely, where the words le xunre cmaxirma are written – but we may suppose the book has been translated into Lojban.)

What you really want to say is:

Example 6.52. 

mi viska le selsinxa
I see the thing-represented-by
be lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u
[quote] the red small-horse [unquote].

The x2 place of selsinxa (the x1 place of sinxa) is a sign or symbol, and the x1 place of selsinxa (the x2 place of sinxa) is the thing represented by the sign. Example 6.52 allows us to use a symbol (namely the title of a book) to represent the thing it is a symbol of (namely the book itself).

This operation turns out to be needed often enough that it's useful to be able to say:

Example 6.53. 

mi viska la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u [lu'u]
I see the-referent-of [quote] the red small-horse [unquote] -.

So when la'e is prefixed to a sumti referring to a symbol, it produces a sumti referring to the referent of that symbol. (In computer jargon, la'e dereferences a pointer.)

By introducing a sumti qualifier, we correct a false sentence ( Example 6.51), which too closely resembles its literal English equivalent, into a true sentence ( Example 6.53), without having to change it overmuch; in particular, the structure remains the same. Most of the uses of sumti qualifiers are of this general kind.

The sumti qualifier lu'e provides the converse operation: it can be prefixed to a sumti referring to some thing to produce a sumti referring to a sign or symbol for the thing. For example,

Example 6.54. 

mi pu cusku lu'e le vi cukta
I [past] express a-symbol-for the nearby book.

I said the title of this book.


The equivalent form not using a sumti qualifier would be:

Example 6.55. 

mi pu cusku le sinxa be le vi cukta
I [past] express the symbol-for the nearby book.

which is equivalent to Example 6.54 , but longer.

The other sumti qualifiers follow the same rules. The cmavo tu'a is used in forming abstractions, and is explained more fully in Section 11.10. The triplet lu'a , lu'i , and lu'o convert between individuals, sets, and masses; vu'i belongs to this group as well, but creates a sequence, which is similar to a set but has a definite order. (The set of John and Charles is the same as the set of Charles and John, but the sequences are different.) Here are some examples:

Example 6.56. 

mi troci tu'a le vorme
I try some-abstraction-about the door.

I try (to open) the door.


Example 6.56 might mean that I try to do something else involving the door; the form is deliberately vague.

Most of the following examples make use of the cmavo ri , belonging to selma'o KOhA. This cmavo means the thing last mentioned ; it is equivalent to repeating the immediately previous sumti (but in its original context). It is explained in more detail in Section 7.6.

Example 6.57. 

lo'i ratcu cu barda
The-set-of rats is-large.
.iku'i lu'a ri cmalu
But some-members-of it-last-mentioned are-small.

The set of rats is large, but some of its members are small.


Example 6.58. 

lo ratcu cu cmalu .iku'i lu'i ri barda
Some rats are-small. But the-set-of them-last-mentioned is-large.

Some rats are small, but the set of rats is large.


Example 6.59. 

mi ce do girzu
I in-a-set-with you are-a-set.
.i lu'o ri gunma
The-mass-of it-last-mentioned is-a-mass.
.i vu'i ri porsi
The-sequence-of it-last-mentioned is-a-sequence

The set of you and me is a set. The mass of you and me is a mass. The sequence of you and me is a sequence.


(Yes, I know these examples are a bit silly. This set was introduced for completeness, and practical examples are as yet hard to come by.)

Finally, the four sumti qualifiers formed from a cmavo of NAhE and bo are all concerned with negation, which is discussed in detail in Chapter 15. Here are a few examples of negation sumti qualifiers:

Example 6.60. 

mi viska na'ebo le gerku
I see something-other-than the dog.


This compound, na'ebo , is the most common of the four negation sumti qualifiers. The others usually only make sense in the context of repeating, with modifications, something already referred to:

Example 6.61. 

mi nelci loi glare cidja
I like part-of-the-mass-of hot-type-of food.
.ije do nelci to'ebo ri
And you like the-opposite-of the-last-mentioned.
.ije la .djein. nelci no'ebo ra
And that-named Jane likes the-neutral-value-of something-mentioned.

I like hot food, and you like cold food, and Jane likes lukewarm food.


(In Example 6.61 , the sumti ra refers to some previously mentioned sumti other than that referred to by ri. We cannot use ri here, because it would signify la .djein. , that being the most recent sumti available to ri. See more detailed explanations in Section 7.6.)

6.11. The syntax of vocative phrases

Vocative phrases are not sumti, but are explained in this chapter because their syntax is very similar to that of sumti. Grammatically, a vocative phrase is one of the so-called free modifiers of Lojban, along with subscripts, parentheses, and various other constructs explained in Chapter 19. They can be placed after many, but not all, constructions of the grammar: in general, after any elidable terminator (which, however, must not then be elided!), at the beginnings and ends of sentences, and in many other places.

The purpose of a vocative phrase is to indicate who is being addressed, or to indicate to that person that he or she ought to be listening. A vocative phrase begins with a cmavo of selma'o COI or DOI, all of which are explained in more detail in Section 13.14. Sometimes that is all there is to the phrase:

Example 6.62. 

coi
[greetings]

Hello.


Example 6.63. 

je'e
[acknowledgement]

Uh-huh.

Roger!


In these cases, the person being addressed is obvious from the context. However, a vocative word (more precisely, one or more cmavo of COI, possibly followed by doi , or else just doi by itself) can be followed by one of several kinds of phrases, all of which are intended to indicate the addressee. The most common case is a cmevla (name-word):

Example 6.64. 

coi .djan.
[greetings] John.

Hello, John.


Using doi instead is like just saying someone's name to attract his or her attention:

Example 6.65. 

doi .djan.
O John.

John!


In place of a cmevla, a description may appear, lacking its descriptor, which is understood to be le :

Example 6.66. 

coi xunre pastu nixli
Hello, (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl.

Hello, girl with the red dress!


The listener need not really be a xunre pastu nixli , as long as she understands herself correctly from the description. (Actually, only a bare selbri can appear; explicit quantifiers are forbidden in this form of vocative, so the implicit quantifiers su'o le ro are in effect.)

Finally, a complete sumti may be used, the most general case.

Example 6.67. 

co'o la .bab. .e la .noras.
[partings] that-named Bob and that-named Nora.

Goodbye, Bob and Nora.


Example 6.66 is thus the same as:

Example 6.68. 

coi le xunre pastu nixli
Hello, the-one-described-as (red-type-of dress)-type-of girl!

and Example 6.65 is the same as:

Example 6.69. 

doi la .djan.
O that-named John!

Finally, the elidable terminator for vocative phrases is do'u (of selma'o DOhU), which is rarely needed except when a simple vocative word is being placed somewhere within a bridi. It may also be required when a vocative is placed between a sumti and its relative clause, or when there are a sequence of so-called free modifiers (vocatives, subscripts, utterance ordinals – see Chapter 18 – metalinguistic comments – see Section 19.12 – or reciprocals – see Chapter 19) which must be properly separated.

The meaning of a vocative phrase that is within a sentence is not affected by its position in the sentence: thus Example 6.70 and Example 6.71 mean the same thing:

Example 6.70. 

doi .djan. ko klama mi
O John you [imperative] go-to me.

John, come to me!


Example 6.71. 

ko klama mi doi .djan.
You [imperative] go-to me O John.

Come to me, John!


As usual for this chapter, the full syntax of vocative phrases has not been explained: relative clauses, discussed in Chapter 8 , make for more possibilities.

6.12. Lojban names

Names have been used freely as sumti throughout this chapter without too much explanation. The time for the explanation has now come.

First of all, there are two different kinds of things usually called names when talking about Lojban. The naming predicates of Section 6.2 are just ordinary predicates which are being used in a special sense. In addition, though, there is a class of Lojban words which are used only to name things: these can be recognized by the fact that they end in a consonant and are surrounded by pauses. Some examples:

Example 6.72. 

.djan. .meris. .djein. .alis.
John. Mary. Jane. Alice.

Names of this kind have two basic uses in Lojban: when used in a vocative phrase (see Section 6.11) they indicate who the listener is or should be. When used with a descriptor of selma'o LA, namely la , lai , or la'i , they form sumti which refer to the persons or things known by the name.

Example 6.73. 

la .djonz. klama le zarci
Those-named Jones go-to the store.

The Joneses go to-the store.


Example 6.74. 

lai .djonz. klama le zarci
The-mass-of-those-named Jones goes-to the store.

The Joneses go to the store.


In Example 6.73 , the significance is that all the persons (perhaps only one) I mean to refer to by the name .djonz. are going to the store. In Example 6.74 , the Joneses are massified, and only some part of them needs to be going. Of course, by .djonz. I can mean whomever I want: that person need not use the name .djonz. at all.

The sumti in Example 6.73 and Example 6.74 operate exactly like the similar uses of la and lai in Example 6.10 and Example 6.21 respectively. The only difference is that these descriptors are followed by Lojban name-words (i.e. cmevla). And in fact, the only difference between descriptors of selma'o LA (these three) and of selma'o LE (all the other descriptors) is that the former can be followed by name-words, whereas the latter cannot.

Unless some other rule prevents it (such as the rule that zo is always followed by a single word, which is quoted), multiple name-words may appear wherever one name-word is permitted, each with its terminating pause:

Example 6.75. 

doi .djan. .pol. .djonz. le bloti cu klama fi la .niuport. .niuz.
O John Paul Jones the boat goes from-that-named Newport News.

John Paul Jones, the boat comes (to somewhere) from Newport News.


A name-word may not contain any consonant combination that is illegal in Lojban words generally: the impermissible consonant clusters of Lojban morphology (explained in Section 3.6). Thus .djeimz. is not a valid version of James (because mz is invalid): djeimyz will suffice.

Names may be borrowed from other languages or created arbitrarily. Another common practice is to use one or more rafsi, arranged to end with a consonant, to form a name: thus the rafsi loj- for logji (logical) and ban- for bangu (language) unite to form the name of this language:

Example 6.76. 

.lojban.

Lojban


When borrowing names from another language which end in a vowel, or when turning a Lojban brivla (all of which end in vowels) into a cmevla, the vowel may be removed or an arbitrary consonant added. It is common (but not required) to use the consonants s or n when borrowing vowel-final names from English; speakers of other languages may wish to use other consonant endings.

The implicit quantifier for name sumti of the form la followed by a cmevla (name-word) is su'o , just as for la followed by a selbri.

6.13. Pro-sumti summary

The Lojban pro-sumti are the cmavo of selma'o KOhA. They fall into several classes: personal, definable, quantificational, reflexive, back-counting, indefinite, demonstrative, metalinguistic, relative, question. More details are given in Chapter 7 ; this section mostly duplicates information found there, but adds material on the implicit quantifier of each pro-sumti.

The following examples illustrate each of the classes. Unless otherwise noted below, the implicit quantification for pro-sumti is ro (all). In the case of pro-sumti which refer to other sumti, the ro signifies all of those referred to by the other sumti : thus it is possible to restrict, but not to extend, the quantification of the other sumti.

Personal pro-sumti ( mi , do , mi'o , mi'a , ma'a , do'o , ko) refer to the speaker or the listener or both, with or without third parties:

Example 6.77. 

mi prami do
I love you.

The personal pro-sumti may be interpreted in context as either representing individuals or masses, so the implicit quantifier may be pisu'o rather than ro : in particular, mi'o , mi'a , ma'a , and do'o specifically represent mass combinations of the individuals (you and I, I and others, you and I and others, you and others) that make them up.

Definable pro-sumti ( ko'a , ko'e , ko'i , ko'o , ko'u , fo'a , fo'e , fo'i , fo'o , fo'u) refer to whatever the speaker has explicitly made them refer to. This reference is accomplished with goi (of selma'o GOI), which means defined-as.

Example 6.78. 

le cribe goi ko'a cu xekri .i ko'a citka le smacu
The bear defined-as it-1 is-black. It-1 eats the mouse.

Quantificational pro-sumti ( da , de , di) are used as variables in bridi involving predicate logic:

Example 6.79. 

ro da poi prenu
All somethings-1 which are-persons
cu prami pa de poi finpe
love one something-2 which is-a-fish.

All persons love a fish (each his/her own).


(This is not the same as All persons love a certain fish ; the difference between the two is one of quantifier order.) The implicit quantification rules for quantificational pro-sumti are particular to them, and are discussed in detail in Chapter 16. Roughly speaking, the quantifier is su'o (at least one) when the pro-sumti is first used, and ro (all) thereafter.

Reflexive pro-sumti ( vo'a , vo'e , vo'i , vo'o , vo'u) refer to the same referents as sumti filling other places in the same bridi, with the effect that the same thing is referred to twice:

Example 6.80. 

le cribe cu batci vo'a
The bear bites what-is-in-the-x1-place.

The bear bites itself.


Back-counting pro-sumti ( ri , ra , ru) refer to the referents of previous sumti counted backwards from the pro-sumti:

Example 6.81. 

mi klama la .frankfurt. ri
I go-to that-named Frankfurt from-the-referent-of-the-last-sumti

I go from Frankfurt to Frankfurt (by some unstated route).


Indefinite pro-sumti ( zo'e , zu'i , zi'o) refer to something which is unspecified:

Example 6.82. 

mi klama la .frankfurt.
I go-to that-named Frankfurt
zo'e zo'e zo'e
from-unspecified via-unspecified by-means-unspecified.

The implicit quantifier for indefinite pro-sumti is, well, indefinite. It might be ro (all) or su'o (at least one) or conceivably even no (none), though no would require a very odd context indeed.

Demonstrative pro-sumti ( ti , ta , tu) refer to things pointed at by the speaker, or when pointing is not possible, to things near or far from the speaker:

Example 6.83. 

ko muvgau
You [imperative] move
ti ta tu
this-thing from-that-nearby-place to-that-further-away-place.

Move this from there to over there!


Metalinguistic pro-sumti ( di'u , de'u , da'u , di'e , de'e , da'e , dei , do'i) refer to spoken or written utterances, either preceding, following, or the same as the current utterance.

Example 6.84. 

li re su'i re du li vo
The-number two plus two equals the-number four.
.i la'e di'u jetnu
The-referent-of the-previous-utterance is-true.

The implicit quantifier for metalinguistic pro-sumti is su'o (at least one), because they are considered analogous to lo descriptions: they refer to things which really are previous, current, or following utterances.

The relative pro-sumti ( ke'a) is used within relative clauses (see Chapter 8 for a discussion of relative clauses) to refer to whatever sumti the relative clause is attached to.

Example 6.85. 

mi viska le mlatu ku poi zo'e
I see the cat(s) such-that something-unspecified
zbasu ke'a loi slasi
makes it/them-(the-cats) from-a-mass-of plastic.

I see the cat(s) made of plastic.


The question pro-sumti ( ma) is used to ask questions which request the listener to supply a sumti which will make the question into a truth:

Example 6.86. 

do klama ma
You go-to what-sumti?

Where are you going?


The implicit quantifier for the question pro-sumti is su'o (at least one), because the listener is only being asked to supply a single answer, not all correct answers.

In addition, sequences of lerfu words (of selma'o BY and related selma'o) can also be used as definable pro-sumti.

6.14. Quotation summary

There are four kinds of quotation in Lojban: text quotation, words quotation, single-word quotation, non-Lojban quotation. More information is provided in Chapter 19.

Text quotations are preceded by lu and followed by li'u , and are an essential part of the surrounding text: they must be grammatical Lojban texts.

Example 6.87. 

mi cusku lu mi'e .djan. li'u
I say the-text [quote] I-am John [unquote].

I say I'm John.


Words quotations are quotations of one or more Lojban words. The words need not mean anything, but they must be morphologically valid so that the end of the quotation can be discerned.

Example 6.88. 

mi cusku lo'u li mi le'u
I say the-words [quote] li mi [unquote].

I say li mi.


Note that the translation of Example 6.88 does not translate the Lojban words, because they are not presumed to have any meaning (in fact, they are ungrammatical).

Single-word quotation quotes a single Lojban word. Compound cmavo are not allowed.

Example 6.89. 

mi cusku zo .ai
I say the-word .ai .

Non-Lojban quotation can quote anything, Lojban or not, even non-speech such as drum talk, whistle words, music, or belching. A Lojban word which does not appear within the quotation is used before and after it to set it off from the surrounding Lojban text.

Example 6.90. 

mi cusku zoi .kuot. I'm John .kuot.
I express [non-Lojban] < I'm John >.

I say I'm John.


The implicit quantifier for all types of quotation is su'o (at least one), because quotations are analogous to lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually are words or sequences of words.

6.15. Number summary

The sumti which refer to numbers consist of the cmavo li (of selma'o LI) followed by an arbitrary Lojban mekso, or mathematical expression. This can be anything from a simple number up to the most complicated combination of numbers, variables, operators, and so on. Much more information on numbers is given in Chapter 18. Here are a few examples of increasing complexity:

Example 6.91. 

li vo
the-number four
4

Example 6.92. 

li re su'i re
the-number two plus two
2 + 2

Example 6.93. 

li .abu bi'epi'i xy. bi'ete'a re su'i by. bi'epi'i xy. su'i cy.
the-number a times x to-power 2 plus b times x plus c
ax 2 + bx + c

An alternative to li is me'o , also of selma'o LI. Number expressions beginning with me'o refer to the actual expression, rather than its value. Thus Example 6.91 and Example 6.92 above have the same meaning, the number four, whereas

Example 6.94. 

me'o vo
the-expression four

4


and

Example 6.95. 

me'o re su'i re
the-expression two plus two

2+2


refer to different pieces of text.

The implicit quantifier for numbers and mathematical expressions is su'o , because these sumti are analogous to lo descriptions: they refer to things which actually are numbers or pieces of text. In the case of numbers (with li), this is a distinction without a difference, as there is only one number which is 4; but there are many texts 4 , as many as there are documents in which that numeral appears.

Chapter 7. Brevity is the soul of language: pro-sumti and pro-bridi

The picture for chapter 7

7.1. What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?

Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time we referred to something, we had to express a complete description of it, life would be too short to say what we have to say. In English, we have words called pronouns which allow us to replace nouns or noun phrases with shorter terms. An English with no pronouns might look something like this:

Example 7.1. 

Speakers of Lojban, like speakers of other languages, require mechanisms of abbreviation. If every time speakers of Lojban referred to a thing to which speakers of Lojban refer, speakers of Lojban had to express a complete description of what speakers of Lojban referred to, life would be too short to say what speakers of Lojban have to say.


Speakers of this kind of English would get mightily sick of talking. Furthermore, there are uses of pronouns in English which are independent of abbreviation. There is all the difference in the world between:

Example 7.2. 

John picked up a stick and shook it.


and

Example 7.3. 

John picked up a stick and shook a stick.


Example 7.3 does not imply that the two sticks are necessarily the same, whereas Example 7.2 requires that they are.

In Lojban, we have sumti rather than nouns, so our equivalent of pronouns are called by the hybrid term pro-sumti. A purely Lojban term would be sumti cmavo: all of the pro-sumti are cmavo belonging to selma'o KOhA. In exactly the same way, Lojban has a group of cmavo (belonging to selma'o GOhA) which serve as selbri or full bridi. These may be called pro-bridi or bridi cmavo. This chapter explains the uses of all the members of selma'o KOhA and GOhA. They fall into a number of groups, known as series: thus, in selma'o KOhA, we have among others the mi-series, the ko'a-series, the da-series, and so on. In each section, a series of pro-sumti is explained, and if there is a corresponding series of pro-bridi, it is explained and contrasted. Many pro-sumti series don't have pro-bridi analogues, however.

A few technical terms: The term referent means the thing to which a pro-sumti (by extension, a pro-bridi) refers. If the speaker of a sentence is James, then the referent of the word I is James. On the other hand, the term antecedent refers to a piece of language which a pro-sumti (or pro-bridi) implicitly repeats. In

Example 7.4. 

John loves himself


the antecedent of himself is John; not the person, but a piece of text (a name, in this case). John, the person, would be the referent of himself. Not all pro-sumti or pro-bridi have antecedents, but all of them have referents.

7.2. Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mi

KOhA

mi-series

I, me

do

KOhA

mi-series

you

mi'o

KOhA

mi-series

you and I

mi'a

KOhA

mi-series

I and others, we but not you

ma'a

KOhA

mi-series

you and I and others

do'o

KOhA

mi-series

you and others

ko

KOhA

mi-series

you-imperative

The mi-series of pro-sumti refer to the speaker, the listener, and others in various combinations. mi refers to the speaker and perhaps others for whom the speaker speaks; it may be a Lojbanic mass. do refers to the listener or listeners. Neither mi nor do is specific about the number of persons referred to; for example, the foreman of a jury may refer to the members of the jury as mi, since in speaking officially he represents all of them.

The referents of mi and do are usually obvious from the context, but may be assigned by the vocative words of selma'o COI, explained in Section 13.14. The vocative mi'e assigns mi, whereas all of the other vocatives assign do.

Example 7.5. 

mi'e .djan. doi .frank. mi cusku lu mi bajra li'u do
I-am John, O Frank, I express [quote] I run [unquote] to you

I am John, Frank; I tell you I run.


The cmavo mi'o, mi'a, ma'a, and do'o express various combinations of the speaker and/or the listener and/or other people:

  • mi'o includes only the speaker and the listener but no one else;

  • mi'a includes the speaker and others but excludes the listener;

  • do'o includes the listener and others but excludes the speaker;

  • ma'a includes all three: speaker, listener, others.

All of these pro-sumti represent masses. For example, mi'o is the same as mi joi do, the mass of me and you considered jointly.

In English, we can mean mi or mi'o or mi'a or even ma'a, and English-speakers often suffer because they cannot easily distinguish mi'o from mi'a:

Example 7.6. 

We're going to the store.


Does this include the listener or not? There's no way to be sure.

Finally, the cmavo ko is logically equivalent to do; its referent is the listener. However, its use alters an assertion about the listener into a command to the listener to make the assertion true:

Example 7.7. 

do klama le zarci
You go-to the store.

becomes:

Example 7.8. 

ko klama le zarci
You [imperative] go-to the store.

Make you go to the store true!

Go to the store!


In English, the subject of a command is omitted, but in Lojban, the word ko must be used. However, ko does not have to appear in the x1 place:

Example 7.9. 

mi viska ko
I see you-[imperative]

Make I see you true!

Be seen by me!


In Example 7.9, it is necessary to make the verb passive in English in order to convey the effect of ko in the x2 place. Indeed, ko does not even have to be a sumti of the main bridi:

Example 7.10. 

mi viska le prenu poi prami ko
I see the person that loves you-[imperative]

Make I see the person that loves you true!

Be such that the person who loves you is seen by me!

Show me the person who loves you!


As mentioned in Section 7.1, some pro-sumti series have corresponding pro-bridi series. However, there is no equivalent of the mi-series among pro-bridi, since a person isn't a relationship.

7.3. Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ti

KOhA

ti-series

this here, a nearby object

ta

KOhA

ti-series

that there, a medium-distant object

tu

KOhA

ti-series

that yonder, a far-distant object

It is often useful to refer to things by pointing to them or by some related non-linguistic mechanism. In English, the words this and that serve this function among others: this refers to something pointed at that is near the speaker, and that refers to something further away. The Lojban pro-sumti of the ti-series serve the same functions, but more narrowly. The cmavo ti, ta, and tu provide only the pointing function of this and that; they are not used to refer to things that cannot be pointed at.

There are three pro-sumti of the ti-series rather than just two because it is often useful to distinguish between objects that are at more than two different distances. Japanese, among other languages, regularly does this. Until the 16th century, English did too; the pronoun that referred to something at a medium distance from the speaker, and the now-archaic pronoun yon to something far away.

In conversation, there is a special rule about ta and tu that is often helpful in interpreting them. When used contrastingly, ta refers to something that is near the listener, whereas tu refers to something far from both speaker and listener. This makes for a parallelism between ti and mi, and ta and do, that is convenient when pointing is not possible; for example, when talking by telephone. In written text, on the other hand, the meaning of the ti-series is inherently vague; is the writer to be taken as pointing to something, and if so, to what? In all cases, what counts as near and far away is relative to the current situation.

It is important to distinguish between the English pronoun this and the English adjective this as in this boat. The latter is not represented in Lojban by ti:

Example 7.11. 

le ti bloti
the this boat

does not mean this boat but rather this one's boat, the boat associated with this thing, as explained in Section 8.7. A correct Lojban translation of Example 7.11 is

Example 7.12. 

le vi bloti
the here boat

the nearby boat


using a spatial tense before the selbri bloti to express that the boat is near the speaker. (Tenses are explained in full in Chapter 10.) Another correct translation would be:

Example 7.13. 

ti noi bloti
this-thing which-incidentally is-a-boat

There are no demonstrative pro-bridi to correspond to the ti-series: you can't point to a relationship.

7.4. Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

di'u

KOhA

di'u-series

the previous utterance

de'u

KOhA

di'u-series

an earlier utterance

da'u

KOhA

di'u-series

a much earlier utterance

di'e

KOhA

di'u-series

the next utterance

de'e

KOhA

di'u-series

a later utterance

da'e

KOhA

di'u-series

a much later utterance

dei

KOhA

di'u-series

this very utterance

do'i

KOhA

di'u-series

some utterance

The cmavo of the di'u-series enable us to talk about things that have been, are being, or will be said. In English, it is normal to use this and that for this (indeed, the immediately preceding this is an example of such a usage):

Example 7.14. 

You don't like cats.

That is untrue.


Here that does not refer to something that can be pointed to, but to the preceding sentence You don't like cats. In Lojban, therefore, Example 7.14 is rendered:

Example 7.15. 

do na nelci loi mlatu
You (Not!) like the-mass-of cats
.i di'u jitfa jufra
. The-previous-utterance is-a-false sentence.

Using ta instead of di'u would cause the listener to look around to see what the speaker of the second sentence was physically pointing to.

As with ti, ta, and tu, the cmavo of the di'u-series come in threes: a close utterance, a medium-distance utterance, and a distant utterance, either in the past or in the future. It turned out to be impossible to use the i / a / u vowel convention of the demonstratives in Section 7.3 without causing collisions with other cmavo, and so the di'u-series has a unique i / e / a convention in the first vowel of the cmavo.

Most references in speech are to the past (what has already been said), so di'e, de'e, and da'e are not very useful when speaking. In writing, they are frequently handy:

Example 7.16. 

la .saimn. cusku di'e
That-named Simon expresses the-following-utterance.

Simon says:


Example 7.16 would typically be followed by a quotation. Note that although presumably the quotation is of something Simon has said in the past, the quotation utterance itself would appear after Example 7.16, and so di'e is appropriate.

The remaining two cmavo, dei and do'i, refer respectively to the very utterance that the speaker is uttering, and to some vague or unspecified utterance uttered by someone at some time:

Example 7.17. 

dei jetnu jufra
This-utterance is-a-true sentence.

What I am saying (at this moment) is true.


Example 7.18. 

do'i jetnu jufra
Some-utterance is-a-true sentence.

That's true (where that is not necessarily what was just said).


The cmavo of the di'u-series have a meaning that is relative to the context. The referent of dei in the current utterance is the same as the referent of di'u in the next utterance. The term utterance is used rather than sentence because the amount of speech or written text referred to by any of these words is vague. Often, a single bridi is intended, but longer utterances may be thus referred to.

Note one very common construction with di'u and the cmavo la'e (of selma'o LAhE; see Section 6.10) which precedes a sumti and means the thing referred to by (the sumti):

Example 7.19. 

mi prami la .djein. .i mi nelci la'e di'u
I love that-named Jane. And I like the-referent-of the-last-utterance.

I love Jane, and I like that.


The effect of la'e di'u in Example 7.19 is that the speaker likes, not the previous sentence, but rather the state of affairs referred to by the previous sentence, namely his loving Jane. This cmavo compound is often written as a single word: la'edi'u. It is important not to mix up di'u and la'edi'u, or the wrong meaning will generally result:

Example 7.20. 

mi prami la .djein. .i mi nelci di'u
I love that-named Jane. And I like the-last-utterance.

says that the speaker likes one of his own sentences.

There are no pro-bridi corresponding to the di'u-series.

7.5. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series

The following cmavo and gismu are discussed in this section:

ko'a

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-1

ko'e

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-2

ko'i

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-3

ko'o

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-4

ko'u

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-5

fo'a

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-6

fo'e

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-7

fo'i

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-8

fo'o

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-9

fo'u

KOhA

ko'a-series

it-10

broda

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-1

brode

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-2

brodi

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-3

brodo

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-4

brodu

BRIVLA

broda-series

is-thing-5

goi

GOI

pro-sumti assignment

cei

CEI

pro-bridi assignment

The discussion of personal pro-sumti in Section 7.2 may have seemed incomplete. In English, the personal pronouns include not only I and you but also he, she, it, and they. Lojban does have equivalents of this latter group: in fact, it has more of them than English does. However, they are organized and used very differently.

There are ten cmavo in the ko'a-series, and they may be assigned freely to any sumti whatsoever. The English word he can refer only to males, she only to females (and ships and a few other things), it only to inanimate things, and they only to plurals; the cmavo of the ko'a-series have no restrictions at all. Therefore, it is almost impossible to guess from the context what ko'a-series cmavo might refer to if they are just used freely:

Example 7.21. 

la .alis. klama le zarci .i ko'a blanu
That-named Alice goes-to the store . It-1 is-blue.

The English gloss it-1, plus knowledge about the real world, would tend to make English-speakers believe that ko'a refers to the store; in other words, that its antecedent is le zarci. To a Lojbanist, however, la .alis. is just as likely an antecedent, in which case Example 7.21 means that Alice, not the store, is blue.

To avoid this pitfall, Lojban employs special syntax, using the cmavo goi:

Example 7.22. 

la .alis. klama le zarci
That-named Alice goes-to the store
.i ko'a goi la .alis. cu blanu
. It-1, also-known-as that-named Alice , is-blue.

Syntactically, goi la .alis. is a relative phrase (relative phrases are explained in Chapter 8). Semantically, it says that ko'a and la .alis. refer to the same thing, and furthermore that this is true because ko'a is being defined as meaning la .alis.. It is equally correct to say:

Example 7.23. 

la .alis. klama le zarci
That-named Alice goes-to the store
.i la .alis. goi ko'a cu blanu
. That-named Alice, also-known-as it-1,   is-blue.

in other words, goi is symmetrical. There is a terminator, ge'u (of selma'o GEhU), which is almost always elidable. The details are in Section 8.3.

The afterthought form of goi shown in Example 7.22 and Example 7.23 is probably most common in speech, where we do not know until part way through our utterance that we will want to refer to Alice again. In writing, though, ko'a may be assigned at the point where Alice is first mentioned. An example of this forethought form of goi is:

Example 7.24. 

la .alis. goi ko'a klama le zarci .i ko'a cu blanu
That-named Alice, also-known-as it-1, goes-to the store . It-1   is-blue.

Again, ko'a goi la .alis. would have been entirely acceptable in Example 7.24. This last form is reminiscent of legal jargon: The party of the first part, hereafter known as Buyer, ....

Just as the ko'a-series of pro-sumti allows a substitute for a sumti which is long or complex, or which for some other reason we do not want to repeat, so the broda-series of pro-bridi allows a substitute for a selbri or even a whole bridi:

Example 7.25. 

ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda .i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu

These are plastic cat-food can covers or thingies. The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.


The pro-bridi broda has as its antecedent the selbri slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri. The cmavo cei performs the role of goi in assigning broda to this long phrase, and broda can then be used just like any other brivla. (In fact, broda and its relatives actually are brivla: they are gismu in morphology, although they behave exactly like the members of selma'o GOhA. The reasons for using gismu rather than cmavo are buried in the Loglan Project's history.)

Note that pro-bridi are so called because, even though they have the grammar of selbri, their antecedents are whole bridi. In the following rather contrived example, the antecedent of brode is the whole bridi mi klama le zarci:

Example 7.26. 

mi klama cei brode le zarci .i do brode
I go-to (which-is claim-1) the store . You claim-1.

I go to the store. You, too.


In the second bridi, do brode means do klama le zarci, because brode carries the x2 sumti of mi klama le zarci along with it. It also potentially carries the x1 sumti as well, but the explicit x1 sumti do overrides the mi of the antecedent bridi. Similarly, any tense or negation that is present in the antecedent is also carried, and can be overridden by explicit tense or negation cmavo on the pro-bridi. These rules hold for all pro-bridi that have antecedents.

Another use of broda and its relatives, without assignment, is as sample gismu:

Example 7.27. 

  broda ke brode   brodi
a thing-1 type-of ( thing-2 type-of thing-3 )

represents an abstract pattern, a certain kind of tanru. (Historically, this use was the original one.)

As is explained in Section 17.9, the words for Lojban letters, belonging to selma'o BY and certain related selma'o, are also usable as assignable pro-sumti. The main difference between letter pro-sumti and ko'a-series pro-sumti is that, in the absence of an explicit assignment, letters are taken to refer to the most recent name or description sumti beginning with the same letter (excluding the article):

Example 7.28. 

mi viska le gerku .i gy. cusku zo .arf.
I see the dog . D expresses the-word Arf! .

The Lojban word gerku begins with g, so the antecedent of gy., the cmavo for the letter g, must be le gerku. In the English translation, we use the same principle to refer to the dog as D. Of course, in case of ambiguity, goi can be used to make an explicit assignment.

Furthermore, goi can even be used to assign a name:

Example 7.29. 

le ninmu goi la .sam. cu klama le zarci
The woman also-known-as that-named Sam   goes-to the store.

The woman, whom I'll call Sam, goes to the store.


This usage does not imply that the woman's name is Sam, or even that the speaker usually calls the woman Sam. Sam is simply a name chosen, as if at random, for use in the current context only.

7.6. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ri

KOhA

ri-series

(repeats last sumti)

ra

KOhA

ri-series

(repeats previous sumti)

ru

KOhA

ri-series

(repeats long-ago sumti)

go'i

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats last bridi)

go'a

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats previous bridi)

go'u

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats long-ago bridi)

go'e

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats last-but-one bridi)

go'o

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats future bridi)

nei

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats current bridi)

no'a

GOhA

go'i-series

(repeats outer bridi)

ra'o

RAhO

pro-cmavo update

The term anaphora literally means repetition, but is used in linguistics to refer to pronouns whose significance is the repetition of earlier words, namely their antecedents. Lojban provides three pro-sumti anaphora, ri, ra, and ru; and three corresponding pro-bridi anaphora, go'i, go'a, and go'u. These cmavo reveal the same vowel pattern as the ti-series, but the distances referred to are not physical distances, but distances from the anaphoric cmavo to its antecedent.

The cmavo ri is the simplest of these; it has the same referent as the last complete sumti appearing before the ri:

Example 7.30. 

la .alis. sipna ne'i le ri kumfa
That-named Alice sleeps in the of- [repeat-last-sumti] room.

Alice sleeps in her room.


The ri in Example 7.30 is equivalent to repeating the last sumti, which is la .alis., so Example 7.30 is equivalent to:

Example 7.31. 

la .alis. sipna ne'i le la .alis. kumfa
That-named Alice sleeps in the of- that-named Alice room.

Alice sleeps in Alice's room.


Note that ri does not repeat le ri kumfa, because that sumti is not yet complete when ri appears. This prevents ri from getting entangled in paradoxes of self-reference. (There are plenty of other ways to do that!) Note also that sumti within other sumti, as in quotations, abstractions, and the like, are counted in the order of their beginnings; thus a lower level sumti like la .alis. in Example 7.31 is considered to be more recent than a higher level sumti that contains it.

Certain sumti are ignored by ri; specifically, most of the other cmavo of KOhA, and the almost-grammatically-equivalent lerfu words of selma'o BY. It is simpler just to repeat these directly:

Example 7.32. 

mi prami mi
I love me.

I love myself.


However, the cmavo of the ti-series can be picked up by ri, because you might have changed what you are pointing at, so repeating ti may not be effective. Likewise, ri itself (or rather its antecedent) can be repeated by a later ri; in fact, a string of ri cmavo with no other intervening sumti always all repeat the same sumti:

Example 7.33. 

la .djan. viska le tricu .i
That-named John sees the tree.
ri se jadni le ri jimca
[repeat-last] is-adorned-by the of- [repeat-last] branch.

John sees the tree. It is adorned by its branches.


Here the second ri has as antecedent the first ri, which has as antecedent le tricu. All three refer to the same thing: a tree.

To refer to the next-to-last sumti, the third-from-last sumti, and so on, ri may be subscripted (subscripts are explained in Section 19.6):

Example 7.34. 

lo smuci .i lo forca .i la .rik. pilno rixire
A spoon. A fork. That-named Rick uses [repeat-next-to-last].
.i la .alis. pilno riximu
That-named Alice uses [repeat-fifth-from-last].

Here rixire, or ri-sub-2, skips la .rik. to reach lo forca. In the same way, riximu, or ri-sub-5, skips la .alis., rixire, la .rik., and lo forca to reach lo smuci. As can clearly be seen, this procedure is barely practicable in writing, and would break down totally in speech.

Therefore, the vaguer ra and ru are also provided. The cmavo ra repeats a recently used sumti, and ru one that was further back in the speech or text. The use of ra and ru forces the listener to guess at the referent, but makes life easier for the speaker. Can ra refer to the last sumti, like ri ? The answer is no if ri has also been used. If ri has not been used, then ra might be the last sumti. Likewise, if ra has been used, then any use of ru would repeat a sumti earlier than the one ra is repeating. A more reasonable version of Example 7.34, but one that depends more on context, is:

Example 7.35. 

lo smuci .i lo forca .i la .rik. pilno ra
A spoon. A fork. That-named Rick uses [some-previous-thing].
.i la .alis. pilno ru
That-named Alice uses [some-more-remote-thing].

In Example 7.35, the use of ra tells us that something other than la .rik. is the antecedent; lo forca is the nearest sumti, so it is probably the antecedent. Similarly, the antecedent of ru must be something even further back in the utterance than lo forca, and lo smuci is the obvious candidate.

The meaning of ri must be determined every time it is used. Since ra and ru are more vaguely defined, they may well retain the same meaning for a while, but the listener cannot count on this behavior. To make a permanent reference to something repeated by ri, ra, or ru, use goi and a ko'a-series cmavo:

Example 7.36. 

la .alis. klama le zarci
That-named Alice goes-to the store
.i ri goi ko'a blanu
. It-last-mentioned also-known-as it-1 is-blue.

allows the store to be referred to henceforth as ko'a without ambiguity. Example 7.36 is equivalent to Example 7.21 and eliminates any possibility of ko'a being interpreted by the listener as referring to Alice.

The cmavo go'i, go'a, and go'u follow exactly the same rules as ri, ra, and ru, except that they are pro-bridi, and therefore repeat bridi, not sumti – specifically, main sentence bridi. Any bridi that are embedded within other bridi, such as relative clauses or abstractions, are not counted. Like the cmavo of the broda-series, the cmavo of the go'i-series copy all sumti with them. This makes go'i by itself convenient for answering a question affirmatively, or for repeating the last bridi, possibly with new sumti:

Example 7.37. 

xu zo .djan. cmene do .i go'i
[True-false?] The-word John is-the-name-of you?   [repeat last bridi].

Is John your name? Yes.


Example 7.38. 

mi klama le zarci .i do go'i
I go-to the store . You [repeat last bridi].

I go to the store . You, too.


Note that Example 7.38 means the same as Example 7.26, but without the bother of assigning an actual broda-series word to the first bridi. For long-term reference, use go'i cei broda or the like, analogously to ri goi ko'a in Example 7.36.

The remaining four cmavo of the go'i-series are provided for convenience or for achieving special effects. The cmavo go'e means the same as go'ixire: it repeats the last bridi but one. This is useful in conversation:

Example 7.39. 

A: mi ba klama le zarci
A: I [future] go-to the store.

A: I am going to the store.

B: mi nelci le si'o mi go'i
B: I like the concept-of I [repeat-last-bridi].

B: I like the idea of my going.

A: do go'e
A: You [repeat-last-bridi-but-one].

A: You'll go, too.


Here B's sentence repeats A's within an abstraction (explained in Chapter 11): le si'o mi go'i means le si'o mi klama le zarci. Why must B use the word mi explicitly to replace the x1 of mi klama le zarci, even though it looks like mi is replacing mi ? Because B's mi refers to B, whereas A's mi refers to A. If B said:

Example 7.40. 

mi nelci le si'o go'i


that would mean:

I like the idea of your going to the store.

The repetition signalled by go'i is not literally of words, but of concepts. Finally, A repeats her own sentence, but with the x1 changed to do, meaning B. Note that in Example 7.39, the tense ba (future time) is carried along by both go'i and go'e.

Descriptions based on go'i-series cmavo can be very useful for repeating specific sumti of previous bridi:

Example 7.41. 

le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci .i le
The black cat goes-to the store. That-described-as-the-x1-place-of
go'i cu cadzu le bisli
[repeat-last-bridi] walks-on the ice.

The black cat goes to the store. It walks on the ice.


Here the go'i repeats le xekri mlatu cu klama le zarci, and since le makes the x1 place into a description, and the x1 place of this bridi is le xekri mlatu, le go'i means le xekri mlatu.

The cmavo go'o, nei, and no'a have been little used so far. They repeat respectively some future bridi, the current bridi, and the bridi that encloses the current bridi (no'a, unlike the other members of the go'i- series, can repeat non-sentence bridi). Here are a few examples:

Example 7.42. 

mi nupre le nu mi go'o
I promise the event-of I [repeat-future-bridi].
.i ba dunda le jdini le bersa
[Future] give the money to the son
.i ba dunda le zdani le tixnu
[Future] give the house to the daughter

I promise to do the following: Give the money to my son. Give the house to my daughter.


(Note: The Lojban does not contain an equivalent of the my in the colloquial English; it leaves the fact that it is the speaker's son and daughter that are referred to implicit. To make the fact explicit, use le bersa / tixnu be mi.)

For good examples of nei and no'a, we need nested bridi contexts:

Example 7.43. 

mi se pluka le nu do pensi le nu
I am-pleased-by the event-of (you think-about the (event-of
nei kei pu le nu do zukte
[main-bridi] ) before the (event-of your acting).

I am pleased that you thought about whether I would be pleased (about ...) before you acted.


Example 7.44. 

mi ba klama ca le nu do no'a
I [future] go [present] the event-of you [repeats outer bridi]

I will go when you do.


Finally, ra'o is a cmavo that can be appended to any go'i-series cmavo, or indeed any cmavo of selma'o GOhA, to signal that pro-sumti or pro-bridi cmavo in the antecedent are to be repeated literally and reinterpreted in their new context. Normally, any pro-sumti used within the antecedent of the pro-bridi keep their meanings intact. In the presence of ra'o, however, their meanings must be reinterpreted with reference to the new environment. If someone says to you:

Example 7.45. 

mi ba lumci le mi karce

I will wash my car.


you might reply either:

Example 7.46. 

mi go'i

I will wash your car.


or:

Example 7.47. 

mi go'i ra'o

I will wash my car.


The ra'o forces the second mi from the original bridi to mean the new speaker rather than the former speaker. This means that mi nelci le si'o go'i ra'o would be an acceptable alternative to mi nelci le si'o mi go'i in B's statement in Example 7.39.

The anaphoric pro-sumti of this section can be used in quotations, but never refer to any of the supporting text outside the quotation, since speakers presumably do not know that they may be quoted by someone else.

However, a ri- series or go'a- series reference within a quotation can refer to something mentioned in an earlier quotation if the two quotations are closely related in time and context. This allows a quotation to be broken up by narrative material without interfering with the pro-sumti within it. Here's an example:

Example 7.48. 

la .djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
That-named John says [quote] I go-to the store [unquote].
.i la .alis. cusku lu mi go'i li'u
That-named Alice says [quote] I [repeat] [unquote].

John says, I am going to the store. Alice says, Me too.


Of course, there is no problem with narrative material referring to something within a quotation: people who quote, unlike people who are quoted, are aware of what they are doing.

7.7. Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

zo'e

KOhA

zo'e-series

the obvious value

zu'i

KOhA

zo'e-series

the typical value

zi'o

KOhA

zo'e-series

the nonexistent value

co'e

GOhA

co'e-series

has the obvious relationship

The cmavo of the zo'e-series represent indefinite, unspecified sumti. The cmavo zo'e represents an elliptical value for this sumti place; it is the optional spoken place holder when a sumti is skipped without being specified. Note that the elliptical value is not always the typical value. The properties of ellipsis lead to an elliptical sumti being defined as whatever I want it to mean but haven't bothered to figure out, or figure out how to express.

The cmavo zu'i, on the other hand, represents the typical value for this place of this bridi:

Example 7.49. 

mi klama le bartu be le zdani
I go-to the outside of the house from
le nenri be le zdani zu'i zu'i
the inside of the house [by-typical-route] [by-typical-means]

In Example 7.49, the first zu'i probably means something like by the door, and the second zu'i probably means something like on foot, those being the typical route and means for leaving a house. On the other hand, if you are at the top of a high rise during a fire, neither zu'i is appropriate. It's also common to use zu'i in by standard places.

Finally, the cmavo zi'o represents a value which does not even exist. When a bridi fills one of its places with zi'o, what is really meant is that the selbri has a place which is irrelevant to the true relationship the speaker wishes to express. For example, the place structure of zbasu is:

actor x1 makes x2 from materials x3

Consider the sentence

Living things are made from cells.

This cannot be correctly expressed as:

Example 7.50. 

loi jmive cu se zbasu [zo'e] fi loi selci
The-mass-of living-things   is-made [by-something] from the-mass-of cells

because the zo'e, expressed or understood, in Example 7.50 indicates that there is still a maker in this relationship. We do not generally suppose, however, that someone makes living things from cells. The best answer is probably to find a different selbri, one which does not imply a maker: however, an alternative strategy is to use zi'o to eliminate the maker place:

Example 7.51. 

loi jmive cu
The-mass-of living-things  
se zbasu zi'o loi selci
is-made [without-maker] from the-mass-of cells.

Note: The use of zi'o to block up, as it were, one place of a selbri actually creates a new selbri with a different place structure. Consider the following examples:

Example 7.52. 

mi zbasu le dinju loi mudri
I make the building from some-of-the-mass-of wood.

I make the building out of wood.


Example 7.53. 

zi'o zbasu le dinju loi mudri
[without-maker] makes the building from some-of-the-mass-of wood.

The building is made out of wood.


Example 7.54. 

mi zbasu zi'o loi mudri
I make [without-thing-made] from some-of-the-mass-of wood.

I build using wood.


Example 7.55. 

mi zbasu le dinju zi'o
I make the building [without-material].

I make the building.


If Example 7.52 is true, then Example 7.53 through Example 7.55 must be true also. However, Example 7.51 does not correspond to any sentence with three regular (non- zi'o) sumti.

The pro-bridi co'e (which by itself constitutes the co'e-series of selma'o GOhA) represents the elliptical selbri. Lojban grammar does not allow the speaker to merely omit a selbri from a bridi, although any or all sumti may be freely omitted. Being vague about a relationship requires the use of co'e as a selbri place-holder:

Example 7.56. 

mi troci le nu mi co'e le vorme
I try the event-of my [doing-the-obvious-action] to-the door.

I try the door.


The English version means, and the Lojban version probably means, that I try to open the door, but the relationship of opening is not actually specified; the Lojbanic listener must guess it from context. Lojban, unlike English, makes it clear that there is an implicit action that is not being expressed.

The form of co'e was chosen to resemble zo'e; the cmavo do'e of selma'o BAI (see Section 9.6) also belongs to the same group of cmavo.

Note that do'i, of the di'u-series, is also a kind of indefinite pro-sumti: it is indefinite in referent, but is restricted to referring only to an utterance.

7.8. Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

vo'a

KOhA

vo'a-series

x1 of this bridi

vo'e

KOhA

vo'a-series

x2 of this bridi

vo'i

KOhA

vo'a-series

x3 of this bridi

vo'o

KOhA

vo'a-series

x4 of this bridi

vo'u

KOhA

vo'a-series

x5 of this bridi

soi

SOI

reciprocity

se'u

SEhU

soi terminator

The cmavo of the vo'a-series are pro-sumti anaphora, like those of the ri-series, but have a specific function. These cmavo refer to the other places of the same bridi; the five of them represent up to five places. The same vo'a-series cmavo mean different things in different bridi. Some examples:

Example 7.57. 

mi lumci vo'a

I wash myself


Example 7.58. 

mi klama le zarci vo'e

I go to the store from itself [by some route unspecified].


To refer to places of neighboring bridi, constructions like le se go'i ku do the job: this refers to the 2nd place of the previous main bridi, as explained in Section 7.6.

The cmavo of the vo'a-series are also used with soi (of selma'o SOI) to precisely express reciprocity, which in English is imprecisely expressed with a discursive phrase like vice versa:

Example 7.59. 

mi prami do soi vo'a vo'e
I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi] [x2 of this bridi].

I love you and vice versa (swapping I and you).


The significance of soi vo'a vo'e is that the bridi is still true even if the x1 (specified by vo'a) and the x2 (specified by vo'e) places are interchanged. If only a single sumti follows soi, then the sumti immediately preceding soi is understood to be one of those involved:

Example 7.60. 

mi prami do soi vo'a
I love you [reciprocity] [x1 of this bridi].

again involves the x1 and x2 places.

Of course, other places can be involved, and other sumti may be used in place of vo'a-series cmavo, provided those other sumti can be reasonably understood as referring to the same things mentioned in the bridi proper. Here are several examples that mean the same thing:

Example 7.61. 

mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e -

mi bajykla ti ta soi vo'e vo'i

soi vo'e vo'i mi bajykla ti ta

I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa (to that from this).


The elidable terminator for soi is se'u (selma'o SEhU), which is normally needed only if there is just one sumti after the soi, and the soi construction is not at the end of the bridi. Constructions using soi are free modifiers, and as such can go almost anywhere. Here is an example where se'u is required:

Example 7.62. 

mi bajykla ti soi vo'i se'u ta
I runningly-go-to this [reciprocity] [x3 of this bridi]   from that

I runningly-go to this from that and vice versa.


7.9. sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ma

KOhA

sumti question

mo

GOhA

bridi question

Lojban questions are more fully explained in Section 19.5, but ma and mo are listed in this chapter for completeness. The cmavo ma asks for a sumti to make the bridi true:

Example 7.63. 

do klama ma
You go-to what?

Where are you going?


The cmavo mo, on the other hand, asks for a selbri which makes the question bridi true. If the answer is a full bridi, then the arguments of the answer override the arguments in the question, in the same manner as the go'i-series cmavo. A simple example is:

Example 7.64. 

do mo

What predicate is true as applied to you?

How are you?

What are you doing?

What are you?


Example 7.64 is a truly pregnant question that will have several meanings depending on context.

(One thing it probably does not mean is Who are you? in the sense What is your name/identity?, which is better expressed by:

Example 7.65. 

ma cmene do
What-sumti is-the-name-of you?

What is your name?


or even

Example 7.66. 

doi ma
O [what sumti?]

which uses the vocative doi to address someone, and simultaneously asks who the someone is.)

A further example of mo:

Example 7.67. 

lo mo prenu cu darxi do .i barda
A [what selbri?] type-of person   hit you?   A big thing.

Which person hit you? The big one.


When ma or mo is repeated, multiple questions are being asked simultaneously:

Example 7.68. 

ma djuno ma
[What-sumti] knows [what-sumti]?

Who knows what?


7.10. Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ke'a

KOhA

relativized sumti

This pro-sumti is used in relative clauses (explained in Chapter 8) to indicate how the sumti being relativized fits within the clause. For example:

Example 7.69. 

mi catlu lo mlatu poi [zo'e]
I see a cat such-that something-unspecified
zbasu ke'a lei slasi
makes the-thing-being-relativized-[the-cat] from some-mass-of plastic.

I see a cat made of plastic.


If ke'a were omitted from Example 7.69, it might be confused with:

Example 7.70. 

mi catlu lo mlatu poi
I see a cat such-that
[ke'a] zbasu lei slasi
the-thing-being-relativized-[the-cat] makes a-mass-of plastic

I see a cat that makes plastic.


The anaphora cmavo ri cannot be used in place of ke'a in Example 7.69 and Example 7.70, because the relativized sumti is not yet complete when the ke'a appears.

Note that ke'a is used only with relative clauses, and not with other embedded bridi such as abstract descriptions. In the case of relative clauses within relative clauses, ke'a may be subscripted to make the difference clear (see Section 8.10).

7.11. Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ce'u

KOhA

abstraction focus

The cmavo ce'u is used within abstraction bridi, particularly property abstractions introduced by the cmavo ka. Abstractions, including the uses of ce'u, are discussed in full in Chapter 11.

In brief: Every property abstraction specifies a property of one of the sumti in it; that sumti place is filled by using ce'u. This convention enables us to distinguish clearly between:

Example 7.71. 

le ka ce'u gleki
the property-of (X being-happy)

the property of being happy

happiness


and

Example 7.72. 

le ka gleki ce'u
the property-of (being-happy-about X)

the property of being that which someone is happy about


7.12. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

da

KOhA

da-series

something-1

de

KOhA

da-series

something-2

di

KOhA

da-series

something-3

bu'a

GOhA

bu'a-series

some-predicate-1

bu'e

GOhA

bu'a-series

some-predicate-2

bu'i

GOhA

bu'a-series

some-predicate-3

Bound variables belong to the predicate-logic part of Lojban, and are listed here for completeness only. Their semantics is explained in Chapter 16. It is worth mentioning that the Lojban translation of Example 7.2 is:

Example 7.73. 

la .djan. cu lafmuvgau da poi
That-named John raised something-1 which
grana ku'o gi'e desygau da
is-a-stick and shake-did something-1.

John picked up a stick and shook it.


7.13. Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

da'o

DAhO

cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi

How long does a pro-sumti or pro-bridi remain stable? In other words, once we know the referent of a pro-sumti or pro-bridi, how long can we be sure that future uses of the same cmavo have the same referent? The answer to this question depends on which series the cmavo belongs to.

Personal pro-sumti are stable until there is a change of speaker or listener, possibly signaled by a vocative. Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi last indefinitely or until rebound with goi or cei. Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi also generally last until re-bound; details are available in Section 16.14.

Utterance pro-sumti are stable only within the utterance in which they appear; similarly, reflexive pro-sumti are stable only within the bridi in which they appear; and ke'a is stable only within its relative clause. Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi are stable only within narrow limits depending on the rules for the particular cmavo.

Demonstrative pro-sumti, indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi, and sumti and bridi questions potentially change referents every time they are used.

However, there are ways to cancel all pro-sumti and pro-bridi, so that none of them have known referents. (Some, such as mi, will acquire the same referent as soon as they are used again after the cancellation.) The simplest way to cancel everything is with the cmavo da'o of selma'o DAhO, which is used solely for this purpose; it may appear anywhere, and has no effect on the grammar of texts containing it. One use of da'o is when entering a conversation, to indicate that one's pro-sumti assignments have nothing to do with any assignments already made by other participants in the conversation.

In addition, the cmavo ni'o and no'i of selma'o NIhO, which are used primarily to indicate shifts in topic, may also have the effect of canceling pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignments, or of reinstating ones formerly in effect. More explanations of NIhO can be found in Section 19.3.

7.14. The identity predicate: du

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du

GOhA

identity

The cmavo du has the place structure:

x1 is identical with x2, x3, ...

and appears in selma'o GOhA for reasons of convenience: it is not a pro-bridi. du serves as mathematical =, and outside mathematical contexts is used for defining or identifying. Mathematical examples may be found in Chapter 18.

The main difference between

Example 7.74. 

ko'a du le nanmu
It-1 is-identical-to the man

and

Example 7.75. 

ko'a mintu le nanmu
It-1 is-the-same-as the man

is this defining nature. Example 7.74 presumes that the speaker is responding to a request for information about what ko'a refers to, or that the speaker in some way feels the need to define ko'a for later reference. A bridi with du is an identity sentence, somewhat metalinguistically saying that all attached sumti are representations for the same referent. There may be any number of sumti associated with du, and all are said to be identical.

Example 7.75, however, predicates; it is used to make a claim about the identity of ko'a, which presumably has been defined previously.

Note: du historically is derived from dunli, but dunli has a third place which du lacks: the standard of equality.

7.15. lujvo based on pro-sumti

There exist rafsi allocated to a few cmavo of selma'o KOhA, but they are rarely used. (See Section 7.16 for a complete list.) The obvious way to use them is as internal sumti, filling in an appropriate place of the gismu or lujvo to which they are attached; as such, they usually stand as the first rafsi in their lujvo.

Thus donta'a, meaning you-talk, would be interpreted as tavla be do, and would have the place structure

Example 7.76. 

t1 talks to you about subject t3 in language t4


since t2 (the addressee) is already known to be do.

On the other hand, the lujvo donma'o, literally you-cmavo, which means a second person personal pronoun, would be interpreted as cmavo be zo do, and have the place structure:

Example 7.77. 

c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4


since both the c2 place (the grammatical class) and the c3 place (the meaning) are obvious from the context do.

An anticipated use of rafsi for cmavo in the fo'a series is to express lujvo which can't be expressed in a convenient rafsi form, because they are too long to express, or are formally inconvenient (fu'ivla, cmevla, and so forth). An example would be:

Example 7.78. 

fo'a goi le kulnrsu,omi .i lo fo'arselsanga
x6 stands-for the Finnish-culture . An x6-song.

Finally, lujvo involving zi'o are also possible. The convention is to use the rafsi for zi'o as a prefix immediately followed by the rafsi for the number of the place to be deleted. Thus, if we consider a beverage (something drunk without considering who, if anyone, drinks it) as a se pinxe be zi'o, the lujvo corresponding to this is zilrelselpinxe (deleting the second place of se pinxe). Deleting the x1 place in this fashion would move all remaining places up by one. This would mean that zilpavypinxe has the same place structure as zilrelselpinxe, and lo zilpavypinxe, like lo zilrelselpinxe, refers to a beverage, and not to a non-existent drinker.

The pro-bridi co'e, du, and bu'a also have rafsi, which can be used just as if they were gismu. The resulting lujvo have (except for du- based lujvo) highly context-dependent meanings.

7.16. KOhA cmavo by series

mi-series

mi

I (rafsi: mib)

do

you (rafsi: don and doi)

mi'o

you and I

mi'a

I and others, we but not you

ma'a

you and I and others

do'o

you and others

ko

you-imperative

ti-series

ti

this here; something nearby (rafsi: tif)

ta

that there; something distant (rafsi: taz)

tu

that yonder; something far distant (rafsi: tuf)

di'u-series

di'u

the previous utterance

de'u

an earlier utterance

da'u

a much earlier utterance

di'e

the next utterance

de'e

a later utterance

da'e

a much later utterance

dei

this very utterance

do'i

some utterance

ko'a-series

ko'a

it-1; 1st assignable pro-sumti

ko'e

it-2; 2nd assignable pro-sumti

ko'i

it-3; 3rd assignable pro-sumti

ko'o

it-4; 4th assignable pro-sumti

ko'u

it-5; 5th assignable pro-sumti

fo'a

it-6; 6th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'a)

fo'e

it-7; 7th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'e)

fo'i

it-8; 8th assignable pro-sumti (rafsi: fo'i)

fo'o

it-9; 9th assignable pro-sumti

fo'u

it-10; 10th assignable pro-sumti

ri-series

ri

(repeats the last sumti)

ra

(repeats a previous sumti)

ru

(repeats a long-ago sumti)

zo'e-series

zo'e

the obvious value

zu'i

the typical value

zi'o

the nonexistent value (rafsi: zil)

vo'a-series

vo'a

x1 of this bridi

vo'e

x2 of this bridi

vo'i

x3 of this bridi

vo'o

x4 of this bridi

vo'u

x5 of this bridi

da-series

da

something-1 (rafsi: dav / dza)

de

something-2

di

something-3

others:

ke'a

relativized sumti

ma

sumti question

ce'u

abstraction focus

7.17. GOhA and other pro-bridi by series

broda-series (not GOhA):

broda

is-1; 1st assignable pro-bridi

brode

is-2; 2nd assignable pro-bridi

brodi

is-3; 3rd assignable pro-bridi

brodo

is-4; 4th assignable pro-bridi

brodu

is-5; 5th assignable pro-bridi

go'i-series

go'i

(repeats the last bridi)

go'a

(repeats a previous bridi)

go'u

(repeats a long-ago bridi)

go'e

(repeats the last-but-one bridi)

go'o

(repeats a future bridi)

nei

(repeats the current bridi)

no'a

(repeats the next outer bridi)

bu'a-series

bu'a

some-predicate-1 (rafsi: bul)

bu'e

some-predicate-2

bu'i

some-predicate-3

others:

co'e

has the obvious relationship (rafsi: com / co'e)

mo

bridi question

du

identity: x1 is identical to x2, x3 ...

dub

du'o

7.18. Other cmavo discussed in this chapter

goi

GOI

pro-sumti assignment (ko'a-series)

cei

CEI

pro-bridi assignment (broda-series)

ra'o

RAhO

pro-sumti/pro-bridi update

soi

SOI

reciprocity

se'u

SEhU

soi terminator

da'o

DAhO

cancel all pro-sumti/pro-bridi

Chapter 8. Relative clauses, which make sumti even more complicated

The picture for chapter 8

8.1. What are you pointing at?

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

poi

NOI

restrictive relative clause introducer

ke'a

GOhA

relative pro-sumti

ku'o

KUhO

relative clause terminator

Let us think about the problem of communicating what it is that we are pointing at when we are pointing at something. In Lojban, we can refer to what we are pointing at by using the pro-sumti ti if it is nearby, or ta if it is somewhat further away, or tu if it is distant. (Pro-sumti are explained in full in Chapter 7.)

However, even with the assistance of a pointing finger, or pointing lips, or whatever may be appropriate in the local culture, it is often hard for a listener to tell just what is being pointed at. Suppose one is pointing at a person (in particular, in the direction of his or her face), and says:

Example 8.1. 

ti cu barda
This-one   is-big.

What is the referent of ti ? Is it the person? Or perhaps it is the person's nose? Or even (for ti can be plural as well as singular, and mean these ones as well as this one) the pores on the person's nose?

To help solve this problem, Lojban uses a construction called a relative clause. Relative clauses are usually attached to the end of sumti, but there are other places where they can go as well, as explained later in this chapter. A relative clause begins with a word of selma'o NOI, and ends with the elidable terminator ku'o (of selma'o KUhO). As you might suppose, noi is a cmavo of selma'o NOI; however, first we will discuss the cmavo poi , which also belongs to selma'o NOI.

In between the poi and the ku'o appears a full bridi, with the same syntax as any other bridi. Anywhere within the bridi of a relative clause, the pro-sumti ke'a (of selma'o KOhA) may be used, and it stands for the sumti to which the relative clause is attached (called the relativized sumti). Here are some examples before we go any further:

Example 8.2. 

ti poi ke'a prenu ku'o cu barda
This-thing such-that-( IT is-a-person )   is-large.

This thing which is a person is big.

This person is big.


Example 8.3. 

ti poi ke'a nazbi ku'o cu barda
This-thing such-that-( IT is-a-nose )   is-large.

This thing which is a nose is big.

This nose is big.


Example 8.4. 

ti poi ke'a nazbi kapkevna ku'o cu barda
This-thing such-that-( IT is-a-nose type-of skin-hole )   is-big.

These things which are nose-pores are big.

These nose-pores are big.


In the literal translations throughout this chapter, the word IT , capitalized, is used to represent the cmavo ke'a. In each case, it serves to represent the sumti (in Example 8.2 through Example 8.4 , the cmavo ti) to which the relative clause is attached.

Of course, there is no reason why ke'a needs to appear in the x1 place of a relative clause bridi; it can appear in any place, or indeed even in a sub-bridi within the relative clause bridi. Here are two more examples:

Example 8.5. 

tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu ke'a ku'o cu ratcu
That-distant-thing such-that-( the cat [past] drags IT )   is-a-rat.

That thing which the cat dragged is a rat.

What the cat dragged is a rat.


Example 8.6. 

ta poi mi djica le nu
That-thing such-that-( I desire the event-of(
mi ponse ke'a [kei] ku'o cu bloti
I own IT ) )   is-a-boat.

That thing that I want to own is a boat.


In Example 8.6 , ke'a appears in an abstraction clause (abstractions are explained in Chapter 11) within a relative clause.

Like any sumti, ke'a can be omitted. The usual presumption in that case is that it then falls into the x1 place:

Example 8.7. 

ti poi nazbi cu barda
This-thing which is-a-nose   is-big.

almost certainly means the same thing as Example 8.3. However, ke'a can be omitted if it is clear to the listener that it belongs in some place other than x1:

Example 8.8. 

tu poi le mlatu pu lacpu cu ratcu
That-distant-thing which the cat [past] drags   is-a-rat

is equivalent to Example 8.4.

As stated before, ku'o is an elidable terminator, and in fact it is almost always elidable. Throughout the rest of this chapter, ku'o will not be written in any of the examples unless it is absolutely required: thus, Example 8.2 can be written:

Example 8.9. 

ti poi prenu cu barda
That which is-a-person   is-big.

That person is big.


without any change in meaning. Note that poi is translated which rather than such-that when ke'a has been omitted from the x1 place of the relative clause bridi. The word which is used in English to introduce English relative clauses: other words that can be used are who and that , as in:

Example 8.10. 

I saw a man who was going to the store.


and

Example 8.11. 

The building that the school was located in is large.


In Example 8.10 the relative clause is who was going to the store , and in Example 8.11 it is that the school was located in. Sometimes who , which , and that are used in literal translations in this chapter in order to make them read more smoothly.

8.2. Incidental relative clauses

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

noi

NOI

incidental relative clause introducer

There are two basic kinds of relative clauses: restrictive relative clauses introduced by poi , and incidental (sometimes called simply non-restrictive) relative clauses introduced by noi. The difference between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is that restrictive clauses provide information that is essential to identifying the referent of the sumti to which they are attached, whereas incidental relative clauses provide additional information which is helpful to the listener but is not essential for identifying the referent of the sumti. All of the examples in Section 8.1 are restrictive relative clauses: the information in the relative clause is essential to identification. (The title of this chapter, though, uses an incidental relative clause.)

Consider the following examples:

Example 8.12. 

le gerku poi blanu cu barda
The dog which is-blue   is-large.

The dog which is blue is large.


Example 8.13. 

le gerku noi blanu cu barda
The dog incidentally-which is-blue   is-large.

The dog, which is blue, is large.


In Example 8.12 , the information conveyed by poi blanu is essential to identifying the dog in question: it restricts the possible referents from dogs in general to dogs that are blue. This is why poi relative clauses are called restrictive. In Example 8.13 , on the other hand, the dog which is referred to has presumably already been identified clearly, and the relative clause noi blanu just provides additional information about it. (If in fact the dog hasn't been identified clearly, then the relative clause does not help identify it further.)

In English, the distinction between restrictive and incidental relative clauses is expressed in writing by surrounding incidental, but not restrictive, clauses with commas. These commas are functioning as parentheses, because incidental relative clauses are essentially parenthetical. This distinction in punctuation is represented in speech by a difference in tone of voice. In addition, English restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by that as well as which and who , whereas incidental relative clauses cannot begin with that. Lojban, however, always uses the cmavo poi and noi rather than punctuation or intonation to make the distinction.

Here are more examples of incidental relative clauses:

Example 8.14. 

mi noi pajni cu zvati
I who-incidentally am-a-judge   am-at [some-place].

I, a judge, am present.


In this example, mi is already sufficiently restricted, and the additional information that I am a judge is being provided solely for the listener's edification.

Example 8.15. 

xu do viska le mi karce noi blabi
[True?] You see   my car incidentally-which is-white.

Do you see my car, which is white?


In Example 8.15 , the speaker is presumed to have only one car, and is providing incidental information that it is white. (Alternatively, he or she might have more than one car, since le karce can be plural, in which case the incidental information is that each of them is white.) Contrast Example 8.16 with a restrictive relative clause:

Example 8.16. 

xu do viska le mi karce poi blabi
[True?] You see   my car which is-white.

Do you see my car that is white?

Do you see my white car?


Here the speaker probably has several cars, and is restricting the referent of the sumti le mi karce (and thereby the listener's attention) to the white one only. Example 8.16 means much the same as Example 8.17 , which does not use a relative clause:

Example 8.17. 

xu do viska le mi blabi karce
[True?] You see   my white car.

Do you see my car, the white one?


So a restrictive relative clause attached to a description can often mean the same as a description involving a tanru. However, blabi karce , like all tanru, is somewhat vague: in principle, it might refer to a car which carries white things, or even express some more complicated concept involving whiteness and car-ness; the restrictive relative clause of Example 8.16 can only refer to a car which is white, not to any more complex or extended concept.

8.3. Relative phrases

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pe

GOI

restrictive association

po

GOI

restrictive possession

po'e

GOI

restrictive intrinsic possession

po'u

GOI

restrictive identification

ne

GOI

incidental association

no'u

GOI

incidental identification

ge'u

GEhU

relative phrase terminator

There are types of relative clauses (those which have a certain selbri) which are frequently wanted in Lojban, and can be expressed using a shortcut called a relative phrase. Relative phrases are introduced by cmavo of selma'o GOI, and consist of a GOI cmavo followed by a single sumti.

Here is an example of pe , plus an equivalent sentence using a relative clause:

Example 8.18. 

le stizu pe mi cu blanu
The chair associated-with me   is-blue.

My chair is blue.


Example 8.19. 

le stizu poi ke'a srana mi cu blanu
The chair such-that-( IT is-associated-with me ) is-blue.

In Example 8.18 and Example 8.19 , the link between the chair and the speaker is of the loosest kind.

Here is an example of po :

Example 8.20. 

le stizu po mi cu xunre
The chair specific-to me   is-red.

Example 8.21. 

le stizu poi ke'a se steci srana mi cu xunre
The chair such-that-( IT is-specifically associated-with me ) is-red.

Example 8.20 and Example 8.21 contrast with Example 8.18 and Example 8.19 : the chair is more permanently connected with the speaker. A plausible (though not the only possible) contrast between Example 8.18 and Example 8.20 is that pe mi would be appropriate for a chair the speaker is currently sitting on (whether or not the speaker owned that chair), and po mi for a chair owned by the speaker (whether or not he or she was currently occupying it).

As a result, the relationship expressed between two sumti by po is usually called possession , although it does not necessarily imply ownership, legal or otherwise. The central concept is that of specificity ( steci in Lojban).

Here is an example of po'e , as well as another example of po :

Example 8.22. 

le birka po'e mi cu spofu
The arm intrinsically-possessed-by me   is-broken

Example 8.23. 

le birka poi jinzi ke se steci
The arm which is-intrinsically ( specifically
srana mi cu spofu
associated-with) me   is-broken.

Example 8.24. 

le botpi po mi cu spofu
The bottle specific-to me   is-broken

Example 8.22 and Example 8.23 on the one hand, and Example 8.24 on the other, illustrate the contrast between two types of possession called intrinsic and extrinsic , or sometimes inalienable and alienable , respectively. Something is intrinsically (or inalienably) possessed by someone if the possession is part of the possessor, and cannot be changed without changing the possessor. In the case of Example 8.22 , people are usually taken to intrinsically possess their arms: even if an arm is cut off, it remains the arm of that person. (If the arm is transplanted to another person, however, it becomes intrinsically possessed by the new user, though, so intrinsic possession is a matter of degree.)

By contrast, the bottle of Example 8.24 can be given away, or thrown away, or lost, or stolen, so it is possessed extrinsically (alienably). The exact line between intrinsic and extrinsic possession is culturally dependent. The U.S. Declaration of Independence speaks of the inalienable rights of men, but just what those rights are, and even whether the concept makes sense at all, varies from culture to culture.

Note that Example 8.22 can also be expressed without a relative clause:

Example 8.25. 

le birka be mi cu spofu
The arm of-body me   is-broken

reflecting the fact that the gismu birka has an x2 place representing the body to which the arm belongs. Many, but not all, cases of intrinsic possession can be thus covered without using po'e by placing the possessor into the appropriate place of the description selbri.

Here is an example of po'u :

Example 8.26. 

le gerku po'u le mi pendo cu cinba mi
The dog which-is   my friend   kisses me.

Example 8.27. 

le gerku poi du le mi pendo cu cinba mi
The dog which =   my friend   kisses me.

The cmavo po'u does not represent possession at all, but rather identity. (Note that it means poi du and its form was chosen to suggest the relationship.)

In Example 8.26 , the use of po'u tells us that le gerku and le mi pendo represent the same thing. Consider the contrast between Example 8.26 and:

Example 8.28. 

le mi pendo po'u le gerku cu cinba mi
  My friend which-is the dog   kisses me.

The facts of the case are the same, but the listener's knowledge about the situation may not be. In Example 8.26 , the listener is presumed not to understand which dog is meant by le gerku , so the speaker adds a relative phrase clarifying that it is the particular dog which is the speaker's friend.

Example 8.28 , however, assumes that the listener does not know which of the speaker's friends is referred to, and specifies that it is the friend that is the dog (which dog is taken to be obvious). Here is another example of the same contrast:

Example 8.29. 

le tcadu po'u la nu,iork

The city of New--York [not another city]


Example 8.30. 

la nu,iork po'u le tcadu

New--York -- the city (not the state or some other New York)


The principle that the possessor and the possessed may change places applies to all the GOI cmavo, and allows for the possibility of odd effects:

Example 8.31. 

le kabri pe le mi pendo cu cmalu
The cup associated-with   my friend   is-small.

My friend's cup is small


Example 8.32. 

le mi pendo pe le kabri cu cmalu
  My friend associated-with the cup   is-small.

My friend, the one with the cup, is small.


Example 8.31 is useful in a context which is about my friend, and states that his or her cup is small, whereas Example 8.32 is useful in a context that is primarily about a certain cup, and makes a claim about my friend of the cup , as opposed to some other friend of mine. Here the cup appears to possess the person! English can't even express this relationship with a possessive – the cup's friend of mine looks like nonsense – but Lojban has no trouble doing so.

Finally, the cmavo ne and no'u stand to pe and po'u , respectively, as noi does to poi- they provide incidental information:

Example 8.33. 

le blabi gerku ne mi cu batci do
The white dog, incidentally-associated-with me , bites you.

The white dog, which is mine, bites you.


In Example 8.33 , the white dog is already fully identified (after all, presumably the listener knows which dog bit him or her!). The fact that it is yours is merely incidental to the main bridi claim.

Distinguishing between po'u and no'u can be a little tricky. Consider a room with several men in it, one of whom is named Jim. If you don't know their names, I might say:

Example 8.34. 

le nanmu no'u la .djim. cu terpemci
The man, incidentally-who-is that-named Jim , is-a-poet.

The man, Jim, is a poet.


Here I am saying that one of the men is a poet, and incidentally telling you that he is Jim. But if you do know the names, then

Example 8.35. 

le nanmu po'u la .djim. cu terpemci
The man who-is that-named Jim   is-a-poet.

The man Jim is a poet.


is appropriate. Now I am using the fact that the man I am speaking of is Jim in order to pick out which man I mean.

It is worth mentioning that English sometimes over-specifies possession from the Lojban point of view (and the point of view of many other languages, including ones closely related to English). The idiomatic English sentence

Example 8.36. 

The man put his hands in his pockets.


seems strange to a French- or German-speaking person: whose pockets would he put his hands into? and even odder, whose hands would he put into his pockets? In Lojban, the sentence

Example 8.37. 

le nanmu cu punji le xance le daski
The man   puts the hand at-locus the pocket.

is very natural. Of course, if the man is in fact putting his hands into another's pockets, or another's hands into his pockets, the fact can be specified.

Finally, the elidable terminator for GOI cmavo is ge'u of selma'o GEhU; it is almost never required. However, if a logical connective immediately follows a sumti modified by a relative phrase, then an explicit ge'u is needed to allow the connective to affect the relativized sumti rather than the sumti of the relative phrase. (What about the cmavo after which selma'o GOI is named? It is discussed in Section 7.5 , as it is not semantically akin to the other kinds of relative phrases, although the syntax is the same.)

8.4. Multiple relative clauses: zi'e

zi'e

ZIhE

relative clause joiner

Sometimes it is necessary or useful to attach more than one relative clause to a sumti. This is made possible in Lojban by the cmavo zi'e (of selma'o ZIhE), which is used to join one or more relative clauses together into a single unit, thus making them apply to the same sumti. For example:

Example 8.38. 

le gerku poi blabi zi'e poi batci le nanmu cu klama

The dog which is white and which bites the man goes.


The most usual translation of zi'e in English is and , but zi'e is not really a logical connective: unlike most of the true logical connectives (which are explained in Chapter 14), it cannot be converted into a logical connection between sentences.

It is perfectly correct to use zi'e to connect relative clauses of different kinds:

Example 8.39. 

le gerku poi blabi zi'e noi
The dog that-is (white) and incidentally-such-that
le mi pendo cu ponse ke'a cu klama
(- my friend   owns IT ) goes.

The dog that is white, which my friend owns, is going.


In Example 8.39 , the restrictive clause poi blabi specifies which dog is referred to, but the incidental clause noi le mi pendo cu ponse is mere incidental information: the listener is supposed to already have identified the dog from the poi blabi. Of course, the meaning (though not necessarily the emphasis) is the same if the incidental clause appears first.

It is also possible to connect relative phrases with zi'e , or a relative phrase with a relative clause:

Example 8.40. 

le botpi po mi zi'e poi blanu cu spofu
The bottle specific-to me and which-is blue   is-broken.

My blue bottle is broken.


Note that if the colloquial translation of Example 8.40 were My bottle, which is blue, is broken , then noi rather than poi would have been correct in the Lojban version, since that version of the English implies that you do not need to know the bottle is blue. As written, Example 8.40 suggests that I probably have more than one bottle, and the one in question needs to be picked out as the blue one.

Example 8.41. 

mi ba zutse le stizu pe
I [future] sit-in the chair associated-with
mi zi'e po do zi'e poi xunre
me and specific-to you and which is-red.

I will sit in my chair (really yours), the red one.


Example 8.41 illustrates that more than two relative phrases or clauses can be connected with zi'e. It almost defies colloquial translation because of the very un-English contrast between pe mi , implying that the chair is temporarily connected with me, and po do , implying that the chair has a more permanent association with you. (Perhaps I am a guest in your house, in which case the chair would naturally be your property.)

Here is another example, mixing a relative phrase and two relative clauses, a restrictive one and a non-restrictive one:

Example 8.42. 

mi ba citka le dembi pe mi zi'e poi cpana
I [future] eat the beans associated-with me and which are-upon
le mi palta zi'e noi do dunda ke'a mi
  my plate and which-incidentally you gave IT to me.

I'll eat my beans that are on my plate, the ones you gave me.


8.5. Non-veridical relative clauses: voi

voi

NOI

non-veridical relative clause introducer

There is another member of selma'o NOI which serves to introduce a third kind of relative clause: voi. Relative clauses introduced by voi are restrictive, like those introduced by poi. However, there is a fundamental difference between poi and voi relative clauses. A poi relative clause is said to be veridical, in the same sense that a description using lo or loi is: it is essential to the interpretation that the bridi actually be true. For example:

Example 8.43. 

le gerku poi blabi cu klama
The dog which is-white   goes.

it must actually be true that the dog is white, or the sentence constitutes a miscommunication. If there is a white dog and a brown dog, and the speaker uses le gerku poi blabi to refer to the brown dog, then the listener will not understand correctly. However,

Example 8.44. 

le gerku voi blabi cu klama
The dog which-I-describe-as white   goes.

puts the listener on notice that the dog in question may not actually meet objective standards (whatever they are) for being white: only the speaker can say exactly what is meant by the term. In this way, voi is like le ; the speaker's intention determines the meaning.

As a result, the following two sentences

Example 8.45. 

le nanmu cu ninmu
That-which-I-describe-as a-man   is-a-woman.

The guy is actually a gal.


Example 8.46. 

ti voi nanmu cu ninmu
This-thing which-I-describe-as a-man   is-a-woman.

mean essentially the same thing (except that Example 8.46 involves pointing thanks to the use of ti , whereas Example 8.45 doesn't), and neither one is self-contradictory: it is perfectly all right to describe something as a man (although perhaps confusing to the listener) even if it actually is a woman.

8.6. Relative clauses and descriptors

So far, this chapter has described the various kinds of relative clauses (including relative phrases). The list is now complete, and the rest of the chapter will be concerned with the syntax of sumti that include relative clauses. So far, all relative clauses have appeared directly after the sumti to which they are attached. This is the most common position (and originally the only one), but a variety of other placements are also possible which produce a variety of semantic effects.

There are actually three places where a relative clause can be attached to a description sumti: after the descriptor ( le , lo , or whatever), after the embedded selbri but before the elidable terminator (which is ku), and after the ku. The relative clauses attached to descriptors that we have seen have occupied the second position. Thus Example 8.43 , if written out with all elidable terminators, would appear as:

Example 8.47. 

le gerku poi blabi ku'o ku cu klama vau
The (dog which (is-white ) )   goes .

The dog which is white is going.


Here ku'o is the terminator paired with poi and ku with le , and vau is the terminator of the whole bridi.

When a simple descriptor using le , like le gerku , has a relative clause attached, it is purely a matter of style and emphasis where the relative clause should go. Therefore, the following examples are all equivalent in meaning to Example 8.47 :

Example 8.48. 

le poi blabi ku'o gerku cu klama
The such-that-( it-is-white ) dog   goes.

Example 8.49. 

le gerku ku poi blabi cu klama
The (dog ) which is-white   goes.

Example 8.47 will seem most natural to speakers of languages like English, which always puts relative clauses after the noun phrases they are attached to; Example 8.48 , on the other hand, may seem more natural to Finnish or Chinese speakers, who put the relative clause first. Note that in Example 8.48 , the elidable terminator ku'o must appear, or the selbri of the relative clause ( blabi) will merge with the selbri of the description ( gerku), resulting in an ungrammatical sentence. The purpose of the form appearing in Example 8.49 will be apparent shortly.

As is explained in detail in Section 6.7 , two different numbers (known as the inner quantifier and the outer quantifier) can be attached to a description. The inner quantifier specifies how many things the descriptor refers to: it appears between the descriptor and the description selbri. The outer quantifier appears before the descriptor, and specifies how many of the things referred to by the descriptor are involved in this particular bridi. In the following example,

Example 8.50. 

re le mu prenu cu klama le zarci
Two of the five persons   go-to the market.

Two of the five people [that I have in mind] are going to the market.


mu is the inner quantifier and re is the outer quantifier. Now what is meant by attaching a relative clause to the sumti re le mu prenu ? Suppose the relative clause is poi ninmu (meaning who are women). Now the three possible attachment points discussed previously take on significance.

Example 8.51. 

re le poi ninmu ku'o
Two of the such-that([they] are-women )
mu prenu cu klama le zarci
five persons   go-to the market.

Two women out of the five persons go to the market.


Example 8.52. 

re le mu prenu poi ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci
Two of the (five persons which-( are-women) )   go-to the market.

Two of the five women go to the market.


Example 8.53. 

re le mu prenu ku poi ninmu cu klama le zarci
(Two of the five persons ) which-( are-women ) go-to the market.

Two women out of the five persons go to the market.


As the parentheses show, Example 8.52 means that all five of the persons are women, whereas Example 8.53 means that the two who are going to the market are women. How do we remember which is which? If the relative clause comes after the explicit ku , as in Example 8.53 , then the sumti as a whole is qualified by the relative clause. If there is no ku , or if the relative clause comes before an explicit ku , then the relative clause is understood to apply to everything which the underlying selbri applies to.

What about Example 8.51 ? By convention, it means the same as Example 8.53 , and it requires no ku , but it does typically require a ku'o instead. Note that the relative clause comes before the inner quantifier.

When le is the descriptor being used, and the sumti has no explicit outer quantifier, then the outer quantifier is understood to be ro (meaning all), as is explained in Section 6.7. Thus le gerku is taken to mean all of the things I refer to as dogs , possibly all one of them. In that case, there is no difference between a relative clause after the ku or before it. However, if the descriptor is lo , the difference is quite important:

Example 8.54. 

lo prenu ku noi blabi cu klama le zarci
(Some persons ) incidentally-which-( are-white ) go-to the market.

Some people, who are white, go to the market.


Example 8.55. 

lo prenu noi blabi [ku] cu klama le zarci
Some (persons incidentally-which are-white )   go to-the market.

Some of the people, who by the way are white, go to the market.


Both Example 8.54 and Example 8.55 tell us that one or more persons are going to the market. However, they make very different incidental claims. Now, what does lo prenu noi blabi mean? Well, the default inner quantifier is ro (meaning all), and the default outer quantifier is su'o (meaning at least one). Therefore, we must first take all persons, then choose at least one of them. That one or more people will be going.

In Example 8.54 , the relative clause described the sumti once the outer quantifier was applied: one or more people, who are white, are going. But in Example 8.55 , the relative clause actually describes the sumti before the outer quantification is applied, so that it ends up meaning First take all persons – by the way, they're all white. But not all people are white, so the incidental claim being made here is false.

The safe strategy, therefore, is to always use ku when attaching a noi relative clause to a lo descriptor. Otherwise we may end up claiming far too much.

When the descriptor is la , indicating that what follows is a selbri used for naming, then the positioning of relative clauses has a different significance. A relative clause inside the ku , whether before or after the selbri, is reckoned part of the name; a relative clause outside the ku is not. Therefore,

Example 8.56. 

mi viska la nanmu poi terpa le ke'a xirma [ku]
I see that-named-( man which fears the of-IT horse ).

I see Man Afraid Of His Horse.


says that the speaker sees a person with a particular name, who does not necessarily fear any horses, whereas

Example 8.57. 

mi viska la nanmu ku poi terpa le ke'a xirma.
I see that-named-( Man ) which fears the of-IT horse.

I see the person named Man who is afraid of his horse.


refers to one (or more) of those named Man , namely the one(s) who are afraid of their horses.

Finally, so-called indefinite sumti like re karce , which means almost the same as re lo karce (which in turn means the same as re lo ro karce), can have relative clauses attached; these are taken to be of the outside-the- ku variety. Here is an example:

Example 8.58. 

mi ponse re karce [ku] poi xekri
I possess two cars   which-are black.

The restrictive relative clause only affects the two cars being affected by the main bridi, not all cars that exist. It is ungrammatical to try to place a relative clause within an indefinite sumti (that is, before an explicitly expressed terminating ku.) Use an explicit lo instead.

8.7. Possessive sumti

In Example 8.15 through Example 8.17 , the sumti le mi karce appears, glossed as my car. Although it might not seem so, this sumti actually contains a relative phrase. When a sumti appears between a descriptor and its description selbri, it is actually a pe relative phrase. So

Example 8.59. 

le mi karce cu xunre
  My car   is-red.

and

Example 8.60. 

le pe mi karce cu xunre
The (associated-with me) car   is-red.

mean exactly the same thing. Furthermore, since there are no special considerations of quantifiers here,

Example 8.61. 

le karce pe mi cu xunre
The car associated-with me   is-red.

means the same thing as well. A sumti like the one in Example 8.59 is called a possessive sumti. Of course, it does not really indicate possession in the sense of ownership, but like pe relative phrases, indicates only weak association; you can say le mi karce even if you've only borrowed it for the night. (In English, my car usually means le karce po mi , but we do not have the same sense of possession in my seat on the bus ; Lojban simply makes the weaker sense the standard one.) The inner sumti, mi in Example 8.59 , is correspondingly called the possessor sumti.

Historically, possessive sumti existed before any other kind of relative phrase or clause, and were retained when the machinery of relative phrases and clauses as detailed in this chapter so far was slowly built up. When preposed relative clauses of the Example 8.60 type were devised, possessive sumti were most easily viewed as a special case of them.

Although any sumti, however complex, can appear in a full-fledged relative phrase, only simple sumti can appear as possessor sumti, without a pe. Roughly speaking, the legal possessor sumti are: pro-sumti, quotations, names and descriptions, and numbers. In addition, the possessor sumti may not be preceded by a quantifier, as such a form would be interpreted as the unusual descriptor + quantifier + sumti type of description. All these sumti forms are explained in full in Chapter 6.

Here is an example of a description used in a possessive sumti:

Example 8.62. 

le le nanmu ku karce cu blanu
The (associated-with the man ) car   is-blue.

The man's car is blue.


Note the explicit ku at the end of the possessor sumti, which prevents the selbri of the possessor sumti from merging with the selbri of the main description sumti. Because of the need for this ku , the most common kind of possessor sumti are pro-sumti, especially personal pro-sumti, which require no elidable terminator. Descriptions are more likely to be attached with relative phrases.

And here is a number used as a possessor sumti:

Example 8.63. 

le li mu jdice se bende
The of-the-number five judging team-member

Juror number 5


which is not quite the same as the fifth juror ; it simply indicates a weak association between the particular juror and the number 5.

A possessive sumti may also have regular relative clauses attached to it. This would need no comment if it were not for the following special rule: a relative clause immediately following the possessor sumti is understood to affect the possessor sumti, not the possessive. For example:

Example 8.64. 

le mi noi sipna vau karce cu na klama
The of-me incidentally-which-( is-sleeping ) car   isn't going.

means that my car isn't going; the incidental claim of noi sipna applies to me, not my car, however. If I wanted to say that the car is sleeping (whatever that might mean) I would need:

Example 8.65. 

le mi karce poi sipna cu na klama
The of-me car which sleeps   isn't going.

Note that Example 8.64 uses vau rather than ku'o at the end of the relative clause: this terminator ends every simple bridi and is almost always elidable; in this case, though, it is a syllable shorter than the equally valid alternative, ku'o.

8.8. Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

vu'o

VUhO

relative clause attacher

Normally, relative clauses attach only to simple sumti or parts of sumti: pro-sumti, names and descriptions, pure numbers, and quotations. An example of a relative clause attached to a pure number is:

Example 8.66. 

li pai noi na'e frinu namcu
The-number pi, incidentally-which is-a-non- fraction number

The irrational number pi


And here is an incidental relative clause attached to a quotation:

Example 8.67. 

lu mi klama le zarci li'u
[quote] I go-to the market [unquote]
noi mi cusku ke'a cu jufra
incidentally-which-( I express IT ) is-a-sentence.

I'm going to the market , which I'd said, is a sentence.


which may serve to identify the author of the quotation or some other relevant, but subsidiary, fact about it. All such relative clauses appear only after the simple sumti, never before it.

In addition, sumti with attached sumti qualifiers of selma'o LAhE or NAhE+BO (which are explained in detail in Section 6.10) can have a relative clause appearing after the qualifier and before the qualified sumti, as in:

Example 8.68. 

la'e poi tolcitno vau lu le xunre
A-referent-of (which is-old ) [quote] The Red
cmaxirma li'u cu zvati le vu kumfa
Small-horse [unquote] is-at the [far-distance] room.

An old The Red Pony is in the far room.


Example 8.68 is a bit complex, and may need some picking apart. The quotation lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u means the string of words The Red Pony. If the la'e at the beginning of the sentence were omitted, Example 8.68 would claim that a certain string of words is in a room distant from the speaker. But obviously a string of words can't be in a room! The effect of the la'e is to modify the sumti so that it refers not to the words themselves, but to the referent of those words, a novel by John Steinbeck (presumably in Lojban translation). The particular copy of The Red Pony is identified by the restrictive relative clause. Example 8.68 means exactly the same as:

Example 8.69. 

la'e lu le xunre cmaxirma li'u lu'u
A-referent-of ([quote] The Red Small-horse [unquote] )
poi to'ercitno cu zvati le vu kumfa
which is-old is-at the [far-distance] room.

and the two sentences can be considered stylistic variants. Note the required lu'u terminator, which prevents the relative clause from attaching to the quotation itself: we do not wish to refer to an old quotation!

Sometimes, however, it is important to make a relative clause apply to the whole of a more complex sumti, one which involves logical or non-logical connection (explained in Chapter 14). For example,

Example 8.70. 

la .frank. .e la .djordj. noi
That-named Frank and that-named George incidentally-who
nanmu cu klama le zdani
is-a-man go-to the house.

Frank and George, who is a man, go to the house.


The incidental claim in Example 8.70 is not that Frank and George are men, but only that George is a man, because the incidental relative clause attaches only to la djordj , the immediately preceding simple sumti.

To make a relative clause attach to both parts of the logically connected sumti in Example 8.70 , a new cmavo is needed, vu'o (of selma'o VUhO). It is placed between the sumti and the relative clause, and extends the sphere of influence of that relative clause to the entire preceding sumti, including however many logical or non-logical connectives there may be.

Example 8.71. 

la .frank. .e la .djordj. vu'o
(That-named Frank and that-named George )
noi nanmu cu klama le zdani
incidentally-who are-men   go to-the house.

Frank and George, who are men, go to the house.


The presence of vu'o here means that the relative clause noi nanmu extends to the entire logically connected sumti la .frank. .e la .djordj. ; in other words, both Frank and George are claimed to be men, as the colloquial translation shows.

English is able to resolve the distinction correctly in the case of Example 8.70 and Example 8.71 by making use of number: who is rather than who are. Lojban doesn't distinguish between singular and plural verbs: nanmu can mean is a man or are men , so another means is required. Furthermore, Lojban's mechanism works correctly in general: if nanmu (meaning is-a-man) were replaced with pu bajra ( ran), English would have to make the distinction some other way:

Example 8.72. 

la .frank. .e la .djordj. noi
That-named Frank and (that-named George who
pu bajra cu klama le zdani
[past] runs)   go-to the house.

Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.


Example 8.73. 

la .frank. .e la .djordj. vu'o
(That-named Frank and that-named George )
noi pu bajra cu klama le zdani
who [past] run   go-to the house.

Frank and George, who ran, go to the house.


In spoken English, tone of voice would serve; in written English, one or both sentences would need rewriting.

8.9. Relative clauses in vocative phrases

Vocative phrases are explained in more detail in Section 6.11. Briefly, they are a method of indicating who a sentence or discourse is addressed to: of identifying the intended listener. They take three general forms, all beginning with cmavo from selma'o COI or DOI (called vocative words ; there can be one or many), followed by either a cmevla, a selbri, or a sumti. Here are three examples:

Example 8.74. 

coi .frank.

Hello, Frank.


Example 8.75. 

co'o xirma

Goodbye, horse.


Example 8.76. 

fi'i la .frank. .e la .djordj.

Welcome, Frank and George!


Note that Example 8.75 says farewell to something which doesn't really have to be a horse, something that the speaker simply thinks of as being a horse, or even might be something (a person, for example) who is named Horse. In a sense, Example 8.75 is ambiguous between co'o le xirma and co'o la xirma , a relatively safe semantic ambiguity, since names are ambiguous in general: saying George doesn't distinguish between the possible Georges.

Similarly, Example 8.74 can be thought of as an abbreviation of:

Example 8.77. 

coi la .frank.
Hello, the-one-named Frank .

Syntactically, vocative phrases are a kind of free modifier, and can appear in many places in Lojban text, generally at the beginning or end of some complete construct; or, as in Example 8.74 to Example 8.76 , as sentences by themselves.

As can be seen, the form of vocative phrases is similar to that of sumti, and as you might expect, vocative phrases allow relative clauses in various places. In vocative phrases which are simple names (after the vocative words), any relative clauses must come just after the names:

Example 8.78. 

coi .frank. poi xunre se bende
Hello, Frank who is-a-red team-member

Hello, Frank from the Red Team!


The restrictive relative clause in Example 8.78 suggests that there is some other Frank (perhaps on the Green Team) from whom this Frank, the one the speaker is greeting, must be distinguished.

A vocative phrase containing a selbri can have relative clauses either before or after the selbri; both forms have the same meaning. Here are some examples:

Example 8.79. 

co'o poi mi zvati ke'a ku'o xirma
Goodbye, such-that-( I am-at IT ) horse

Goodbye, horse where I am!


Example 8.80. 

co'o xirma poi mi zvati
Goodbye, horse such-that-( I am-at-it).

Example 8.79 and Example 8.80 mean the same thing. In fact, relative clauses can appear in both places.

8.10. Relative clauses within relative clauses

For the most part, these are straightforward and uncomplicated: a sumti that is part of a relative clause bridi may itself be modified by a relative clause:

Example 8.81. 

le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi blanu cu masno
The person who is-in the room which is-blue   is-slow.

However, an ambiguity can exist if ke'a is used in a relative clause within a relative clause: does it refer to the outermost sumti, or to the sumti within the outer relative clause to which the inner relative clause is attached? The latter. To refer to the former, use a subscript on ke'a :

Example 8.82. 

le prenu poi zvati le kumfa poi ke'axire zbasu ke'a cu masno
The person who is-in the room which IT-sub-2 built IT   is-slow.

The person who is in the room which he built is slow.


Here, the meaning of IT-sub-2 is that sumti attached to the second relative clause, counting from the innermost, is used. Therefore, ke'axipa (IT-sub-1) means the same as plain ke'a.

Alternatively, you can use a prenex (explained in full in Chapter 16), which is syntactically a series of sumti followed by the special cmavo zo'u , prefixed to the relative clause bridi:

Example 8.83. 

le prenu poi ke'a goi ko'a zo'u
The man who (IT = it1 :
ko'a zvati le kumfa poi ke'a goi ko'e zo'u
it1 is-in the room which (IT = it2 :
ko'a zbasu ko'e cu masno
it1 built it2)   is-slow.

Example 8.83 is more verbose than Example 8.82 , but may be clearer, since it explicitly spells out the two ke'a cmavo, each on its own level, and assigns them to the assignable cmavo ko'a and ko'e (explained in Section 7.5).

8.11. Index of relative clause cmavo

Relative clause introducers (selma'o NOI):

noi

incidental clauses

poi

restrictive clauses

voi

restrictive clauses (non-veridical)

Relative phrase introducers (selma'o GOI):

goi

pro-sumti assignment

pe

restrictive association

ne

incidental association

po

extrinsic (alienable) possession

po'e

intrinsic (inalienable) possession

po'u

restrictive identification

no'u

incidental identification

Relativizing pro-sumti (selma'o KOhA):

ke'a

pro-sumti for relativized sumti

Relative clause joiner (selma'o ZIhE):

zi'e

joins relative clauses applying to a single sumti

Relative clause associator (selma'o VUhO):

vu'o

causes relative clauses to apply to all of a complex sumti

Elidable terminators (each its own selma'o):

ku'o

relative clause elidable terminator

ge'u

relative phrase elidable terminator

Chapter 9. To Boston via the toad go I, with an excursion into the land of modals

The picture for chapter 9

9.1. Introductory

The basic type of Lojban sentence is the bridi: a claim by the speaker that certain objects are related in a certain way. The objects are expressed by Lojban grammatical forms called sumti ; the relationship is expressed by the Lojban grammatical form called a selbri.

The sumti are not randomly associated with the selbri, but according to a systematic pattern known as the place structure of the selbri. This chapter describes the various ways in which the place structure of Lojban bridi is expressed and by which it can be manipulated. The place structure of a selbri is a sequence of empty slots into which the sumti associated with that selbri are placed. The sumti are said to occupy the places of the selbri.

For our present purposes, every selbri is assumed to have a well-known place structure. If the selbri is a brivla, the place structure can be looked up in a dictionary (or, if the brivla is a lujvo not in any dictionary, inferred from the principles of lujvo construction as explained in Chapter 12); if the selbri is a tanru, the place structure is the same as that of the final component in the tanru.

The stock example of a place structure is that of the gismu klama :

klama x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 employing means of transport x5.

The x1 ... x5 indicates that klama is a five-place predicate, and show the natural order (as assigned by the language engineers) of those places: agent, destination, origin, route, means.

The place structures of brivla are not absolutely stable aspects of the language. The work done so far has attempted to establish a basic place structure on which all users can, at first, agree. In the light of actual experience with the individual selbri of the language, there will inevitably be some degree of change to the brivla place structures.

9.2. Standard bridi form: cu

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

cu

CU

prefixed selbri separator

The most usual way of constructing a bridi from a selbri such as klama and an appropriate number of sumti is to place the sumti intended for the x1 place before the selbri, and all the other sumti in order after the selbri, thus:

Example 9.1. 

mi cu klama la .bastn. la .atlantas.
I go to-that-named Boston from-that-named Atlanta
le dargu le karce
via-the road using-the car.

Here the sumti are assigned to the places as follows:

x1 agent mi
x2 destination la .bastn.
x3 origin la .atlantas.
x4 route le dargu
x5 means le karce

(Note: Many of the examples in the rest of this chapter will turn out to have the same meaning as Example 9.1 ; this fact will not be reiterated.)

This ordering, with the x1 place before the selbri and all other places in natural order after the selbri, is called standard bridi form , and is found in the bulk of Lojban bridi, whether used in main sentences or in subordinate clauses. However, many other forms are possible, such as:

Example 9.2. 

mi la .bastn. la .atlantas.
I, to-that-named Boston from-that-named Atlanta
le dargu le karce cu klama
via-the road using-the car, go.

Here the selbri is at the end; all the sumti are placed before it. However, the same order is maintained.

Similarly, we may split up the sumti, putting some before the selbri and others after it:

Example 9.3. 

mi la .bastn. cu klama la .atlantas.
I to-that-named Boston go from-that-named Atlanta
le dargu le karce
via-the road using-the car.

All of the variant forms in this section and following sections can be used to place emphasis on the part or parts which have been moved out of their standard places. Thus, Example 9.2 places emphasis on the selbri (because it is at the end); Example 9.3 emphasizes la .bastn. , because it has been moved before the selbri. Moving more than one component may dilute this emphasis. It is permitted, but no stylistic significance has yet been established for drastic reordering.

In all these examples, the cmavo cu (belonging to selma'o CU) is used to separate the selbri from any preceding sumti. It is never absolutely necessary to use cu. However, providing it helps the reader or listener to locate the selbri quickly, and may make it possible to place a complex sumti just before the selbri, allowing the speaker to omit elidable terminators, possibly a whole stream of them, that would otherwise be necessary.

The general rule, then, is that the selbri may occur anywhere in the bridi as long as the sumti maintain their order. The only exception (and it is an important one) is that if the selbri appears first, the x1 sumti is taken to have been omitted:

Example 9.4. 

klama la .bastn.
A-goer to-that-named Boston
Goes to-Boston
la .atlantas.
from-that-named Atlanta
from-Atlanta
le dargu
via-the road
via-the road
le karce
using-the car.
using-the car.

Look: a goer to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car!


Here the x1 place is empty: the listener must guess from context who is going to Boston. In Example 9.4 , klama is glossed a goer rather than go because Go at the beginning of an English sentence would suggest a command: Go to Boston!. Example 9.4 is not a command, simply a normal statement with the x1 place unspecified, causing the emphasis to fall on the selbri klama. Such a bridi, with empty x1, is called an observative , because it usually calls on the listener to observe something in the environment which would belong in the x1 place. The third translation above shows this observative nature. Sometimes it is the relationship itself which the listener is asked to observe.

(There is a way to both provide a sumti for the x1 place and put the selbri first in the bridi: see Example 9.14.)

Suppose the speaker desires to omit a place other than the x1 place? (Presumably it is obvious or, for one reason or another, not worth saying.) Places at the end may simply be dropped:

Example 9.5. 

mi klama la .bastn. la .atlantas.

I go to-Boston from-Atlanta (via an unspecified route, using an unspecified means).


Example 9.5 has empty x4 and x5 places: the speaker does not specify the route or the means of transport. However, simple omission will not work for a place when the places around it are to be specified: in

Example 9.6. 

mi klama la .bastn. la .atlantas. le karce
I go to-that-named Boston from-that-named Atlanta via-the car.

le karce occupies the x4 place, and therefore Example 9.6 means:

I go to Boston from Atlanta, using the car as a route.

This is nonsense, since a car cannot be a route. What the speaker presumably meant is expressed by:

Example 9.7. 

mi klama la .bastn. la .atlantas.
I go to-that-named Boston from-that-named Atlanta
zo'e le karce
via-something-unspecified using-the car.

Here the sumti cmavo zo'e is used to explicitly fill the x4 place; zo'e means the unspecified thing and has the same meaning as leaving the place empty: the listener must infer the correct meaning from context.

9.3. Tagging places: FA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fa

FA

tags x1 place

fe

FA

tags x2 place

fi

FA

tags x3 place

fo

FA

tags x4 place

fu

FA

tags x5 place

fi'a

FA

place structure question

In sentences like Example 9.1 , it is easy to get lost and forget which sumti falls in which place, especially if the sumti are more complicated than simple names or descriptions. The place structure tags of selma'o FA may be used to help clarify place structures. The five cmavo fa , fe , fi , fo , and fu may be inserted just before the sumti in the x1 to x5 places respectively:

Example 9.8. 

fa mi cu klama fe la .bastn. fi la .atlantas.
x1= I go x2= that-named Boston x3= that-named Atlanta
fo le dargu fu le karce
x4= the road x5= the car.

I go to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.


In Example 9.8 , the tag fu before le karce clarifies that le karce occupies the x5 place of klama. The use of fu tells us nothing about the purpose or meaning of the x5 place; it simply says that le karce occupies it.

In Example 9.8 , the tags are overkill; they serve only to make Example 9.1 even longer than it is. Here is a better illustration of the use of FA tags for clarification:

Example 9.9. 

fa mi klama fe le zdani be mi be'o poi
x1= I go x2= (the house of me) which
nurma vau fi la .nu,IORK.
is-rural x3= that-named New-York.

In Example 9.9 , the place structure of klama is as follows:

x1 agent mi
x2 destination le zdani be mi be'o poi nurma vau
x3 origin la .nu,IORK.
x4 route (empty)
x5 means (empty)

The fi tag serves to remind the hearer that what follows is in the x3 place of klama ; after listening to the complex sumti occupying the x2 place, it's easy to get lost.

Of course, once the sumti have been tagged, the order in which they are specified no longer carries the burden of distinguishing the places. Therefore, it is perfectly all right to scramble them into any order desired, and to move the selbri to anywhere in the bridi, even the beginning:

Example 9.10. 

klama fa mi fi la .atlantas. fu le karce
go x1= I x3= that-named Atlanta x5= the car
fe la .bastn. fo le dargu
x2= that-named Boston x4= the road.

Go I from Atlanta using the car to Boston via the road.


Note that no cu is permitted before the selbri in Example 9.10 , because cu separates the selbri from any preceding sumti, and Example 9.10 has no such sumti.

Example 9.11. 

fu le karce fo le dargu fi la .atlantas.
x5= the car x4= the road x3= that-named Atlanta
fe la .bastn. cu klama fa mi
x2= that-named Boston go x1= I

Using the car, via the road, from Atlanta to Boston go I.


Example 9.11 exhibits the reverse of the standard bridi form seen in Example 9.1 and Example 9.8 , but still means exactly the same thing. If the FA tags were left out, however, producing:

Example 9.12. 

le karce le dargu la .atlantas.
The car to-the road from-that-named Atlanta
la .bastn. cu klama mi
via-that-named Boston goes using-me.

The car goes to the road from Atlanta, with Boston as the route, using me as a means of transport.


the meaning would be wholly changed, and in fact nonsensical.

Tagging places with FA cmavo makes it easy not only to reorder the places but also to omit undesirable ones, without any need for zo'e or special rules about the x1 place:

Example 9.13. 

klama fi la .atlantas. fe la .bastn.
A-goer x3= that-named Atlanta x2= that-named Boston
fu le karce
x5= the car.

A goer from Atlanta to Boston using the car.


Here the x1 and x4 places are empty, and so no sumti are tagged with fa or fo ; in addition, the x2 and x3 places appear in reverse order.

What if some sumti have FA tags and others do not? The rule is that after a FA-tagged sumti, any sumti following it occupy the places numerically succeeding it, subject to the proviso that an already-filled place is skipped:

Example 9.14. 

klama fa mi la .bastn. la .atlantas.
Go x1= I x2=that-named Boston x3=that-named Atlanta
le dargu le karce
x4=the road x5=the car.

Go I to Boston from Atlanta via the road using the car.


In Example 9.14 , the fa causes mi to occupy the x1 place, and then the following untagged sumti occupy in order the x2 through x5 places. This is the mechanism by which Lojban allows placing the selbri first while specifying a sumti for the x1 place.

Here is a more complex (and more confusing) example:

Example 9.15. 

mi klama fi la .atlantas. le dargu
I go x3= that-named Atlanta, the road
fe la .bastn. le karce
x2= that-named Boston, the car.

I go from Atlanta via the road to Boston using the car.


In Example 9.15 , mi occupies the x1 place because it is the first sumti in the sentence (and is before the selbri). The second sumti, la .atlantas. , occupies the x3 place by virtue of the tag fi , and le dargu occupies the x4 place as a result of following la .atlantas.. Finally, la .bastn. occupies the x2 place because of its tag fe , and le karce skips over the already-occupied x3 and x4 places to land in the x5 place.

Such a convoluted use of tags should probably be avoided except when trying for a literal translation of some English (or other natural-language) sentence; the rules stated here are merely given so that some standard interpretation is possible.

It is grammatically permitted to tag more than one sumti with the same FA cmavo. The effect is that of making more than one claim:

Example 9.16. 

[fa] la .rik. fa la .djein. klama
[x1=] that-named Rick x1= that-named Jane goes-to
[fe] le kindi'u fe le zdani fe le zarci
[x2=] the movie-theater x2= the house x2= the store

may be taken to say that both Rick and Jane go to the movie, the house, and the office, merging six claims into one. More likely, however, it will simply confuse the listener. There are better ways, involving logical connectives (explained in Chapter 14), to say such things in Lojban. In fact, putting more than one sumti into a place is odd enough that it can only be done by explicit FA usage: this is the motivation for the proviso above, that already-occupied places are skipped. In this way, no sumti can be forced into a place already occupied unless it has an explicit FA cmavo tagging it.

The cmavo fi'a also belongs to selma'o FA, and allows Lojban users to ask questions about place structures. A bridi containing fi'a is a question, asking the listener to supply the appropriate other member of FA which will make the bridi a true statement:

Example 9.17. 

fi'a do dunda [fe] le vi rozgu
[what-place]? you give x2= the nearby rose

In what way are you involved in the giving of this rose?

Are you the giver or the receiver of this rose?


In Example 9.17 , the speaker uses the selbri dunda , whose place structure is:

dunda x1 gives x2 to x3

The tagged sumti fi'a do indicates that the speaker wishes to know whether the sumti do falls in the x1 or the x3 place (the x2 place is already occupied by le rozgu). The listener can reply with a sentence consisting solely of a FA cmavo: fa if the listener is the giver, fi if he/she is the receiver.

I have inserted the tag fe in brackets into Example 9.17 , but it is actually not necessary, because fi'a does not count as a numeric tag; therefore, le vi rozgu would necessarily be in the x2 place even if no tag were present, because it immediately follows the selbri.

There is also another member of FA, namely fai , which is discussed in Section 9.12.

9.4. Conversion: SE

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

se

SE

2nd place conversion

te

SE

3rd place conversion

ve

SE

4th place conversion

xe

SE

5th place conversion

So far we have seen ways to move sumti around within a bridi, but the actual place structure of the selbri has always remained untouched. The conversion cmavo of selma'o SE are incorporated within the selbri itself, and produce a new selbri (called a converted selbri) with a different place structure. In particular, after the application of any SE cmavo, the number and purposes of the places remain the same, but two of them have been exchanged, the x1 place and another. Which place has been exchanged with x1 depends on the cmavo chosen. Thus, for example, when se is used, the x1 place is swapped with the x2 place.

Note that the cmavo of SE begin with consecutive consonants in alphabetical order. There is no 1st place conversion cmavo, because exchanging the x1 place with itself is a pointless maneuver.

Here are the place structures of se klama :

x1 is the destination of x2's going from x3 via x4 using x5

and te klama :

x1 is the origin and x2 the destination of x3 going via x4 using x5

and ve klama :

x1 is the route to x2 from x3 used by x4 going via x5

and xe klama :

x1 is the means in going to x2 from x3 via x4 employed by x5

Note that the place structure numbers in each case continue to be listed in the usual order, x1 to x5.

Consider the following pair of examples:

Example 9.18. 

la .bastn. cu se klama mi
That-named Boston is-the-destination of-me.

Boston is my destination.

Boston is gone to by me.


Example 9.19. 

fe la .bastn. cu klama fa mi
x2= that-named Boston go x1= I.

To Boston go I.


Example 9.18 and Example 9.19 mean the same thing, in the sense that there is a relationship of going with the speaker as the agent and Boston as the destination (and with unspecified origin, route, and means). Structurally, however, they are quite different. Example 9.18 has la .bastn. in the x1 place and mi in the x2 place of the selbri se klama , and uses standard bridi order; Example 9.19 has mi in the x1 place and la .bastn. in the x2 place of the selbri klama , and uses a non-standard order.

The most important use of conversion is in the construction of descriptions. A description is a sumti which begins with a cmavo of selma'o LA or LE, called the descriptor, and contains (in the simplest case) a selbri. We have already seen the descriptions le dargu and le karce. To this we could add:

Example 9.20. 

le klama

the go-er, the one who goes


In every case, the description is about something which fits into the x1 place of the selbri. In order to get a description of a destination (that is, something fitting the x2 place of klama), we must convert the selbri to se klama , whose x1 place is a destination. The result is

Example 9.21. 

le se klama

the destination gone to by someone


Likewise, we can create three more converted descriptions:

Example 9.22. 

le te klama

the origin of someone's going


Example 9.23. 

le ve klama

the route of someone's going


Example 9.24. 

le xe klama

the means by which someone goes


Example 9.23 does not mean the route plain and simple: that is le pluta , using a different selbri. It means a route that is used by someone for an act of klama ; that is, a journey with origin and destination. A road on Mars, on which no one has traveled or is ever likely to, may be called le pluta , but it cannot be le ve klama , since there exists no one for whom it is le ve klama be fo da (the route taken in an actual journey by someone [da]).

When converting selbri that are more complex than a single brivla, it is important to realize that the scope of a SE cmavo is only the following brivla (or equivalent unit). In order to convert an entire tanru, it is necessary to enclose the tanru in keke'e brackets:

Example 9.25. 

mi se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] ti
I [2nd-conversion] ( blue house ) this-thing

The place structure of blanu zdani (blue house) is the same as that of zdani , by the rule given in Section 9.1. The place structure of zdani is:

zdani x1 is a house/nest/lair/den for inhabitant x2

The place structure of se ke blanu zdani [ke'e] is therefore:

x1 is the inhabitant of the blue house (etc.) x2

Consequently, Example 9.25 means:

I am the inhabitant of the blue house which is this thing.

Conversion applied to only part of a tanru has subtler effects which are explained in Section 5.11.

It is grammatical to convert a selbri more than once with SE; later (inner) conversions are applied before earlier (outer) ones. For example, the place structure of se te klama is achieved by exchanging the x1 and x2 place of te klama , producing:

x1 is the destination and x2 is the origin of x3 going via x4 using x5

On the other hand, te se klama has a place structure derived from swapping the x1 and x3 places of se klama :

x1 is the origin of x2's going to x3 via x4 using x5

which is quite different. However, multiple conversions like this are never necessary. Arbitrary scrambling of places can be achieved more easily and far more intelligibly with FA tags, and only a single conversion is ever needed in a description.

(Although no one has made any real use of it, it is perhaps worth noting that compound conversions of the form setese , where the first and third cmavo are the same, effectively swap the two given places while leaving the others, including x1, alone: setese (or equivalently tesete) swap the x2 and x3 places, whereas texete (or xetexe) swap the x3 and x5 places.)

9.5. Modal places: FIhO, FEhU

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fi'o

FIhO

modal place prefix

fe'u

FEhU

modal terminator

Sometimes the place structures engineered into Lojban are inadequate to meet the needs of actual speech. Consider the gismu viska , whose place structure is:

viska x1 sees x2 under conditions x3

Seeing is a threefold relationship, involving an agent (le viska), an object of sight (le se viska), and an environment that makes seeing possible (le te viska). Seeing is done with one or more eyes, of course; in general, the eyes belong to the entity in the x1 place.

Suppose, however, that you are blind in one eye and are talking to someone who doesn't know that. You might want to say, I see you with the left eye. There is no place in the place structure of viska such as with eye x4 or the like. Lojban allows you to solve the problem by adding a new place, changing the relationship:

Example 9.26. 

mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle
I see you [modal] eye: the left-thing

I see you with the left eye.


The three-place relation viska has now acquired a fourth place specifying the eye used for seeing. The combination of the cmavo fi'o (of selma'o FIhO) followed by a selbri, in this case the gismu kanla , forms a tag which is prefixed to the sumti filling the new place, namely le zunle. The semantics of fi'o kanla le zunle is that le zunle fills the x1 place of kanla , whose place structure is

kanla x1 is an/the eye of body x2

Thus le zunle is an eye. The x2 place of kanla is unspecified and must be inferred from the context. It is important to remember that even though le zunle is placed following fi'o kanla , semantically it belongs in the x1 place of kanla. The selbri may be terminated with fe'u (of selma'o FEhU), an elidable terminator which is rarely required unless a non-logical connective follows the tag (omitting fe'u in that case would make the connective affect the selbri).

The term for such an added place is a modal place , as distinguished from the regular numbered places. (This use of the word modal is specific to the Loglan Project, and does not agree with the standard uses in either logic or linguistics, but is now too entrenched to change easily.) The fi'o construction marking a modal place is called a modal tag , and the sumti which follows it a modal sumti ; the purely Lojban terms sumtcita and seltcita sumti , respectively, are also commonly used. Modal sumti may be placed anywhere within the bridi, in any order; they have no effect whatever on the rules for assigning unmarked sumti to numbered places, and they may not be marked with FA cmavo.

Consider Example 9.26 again. Another way to view the situation is to consider the speaker's left eye as a tool, a tool for seeing. The relevant selbri then becomes pilno , whose place structure is

pilno x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3

and we can rewrite Example 9.26 as

Example 9.27. 

mi viska do fi'o se pilno le zunle kanla
I see you [modal] [conversion] use: the left eye.

I see you using my left eye.


Here the selbri belonging to the modal is se pilno. The conversion of pilno is necessary in order to get the tool place into x1, since only x1 can be the modal sumti. The tool user place is the x2 of se pilno (because it is the x1 of pilno) and remains unspecified. The tag fi'o pilno would mean with tool user , leaving the tool unspecified.

9.6. Modal tags: BAI

There are certain selbri which seem particularly useful in constructing modal tags. In particular, pilno is one of them. The place structure of pilno is:

pilno x1 uses x2 as a tool for purpose x3

and almost any selbri which represents an action may need to specify a tool. Having to say fi'o se pilno frequently would make many Lojban sentences unnecessarily verbose and clunky, so an abbreviation is provided in the language design: the compound cmavo sepi'o.

Here se is used before a cmavo, namely pi'o , rather than before a brivla. The meaning of this cmavo, which belongs to selma'o BAI, is exactly the same as that of fi'o pilno fe'u. Since what we want is a tag based on se pilno rather than pilno- the tool, not the tool user – the grammar allows a BAI cmavo to be converted using a SE cmavo. Example 9.27 may therefore be rewritten as:

Example 9.28. 

mi viska do sepi'o le zunle kanla
I see you with-tool: the left eye

I see you using my left eye.


The compound cmavo sepi'o is much shorter than fi'o se pilno [fe'u] and can be thought of as a single word meaning with-tool. The modal tag pi'o , with no se , similarly means with-tool-user , probably a less useful concept. Nevertheless, the parallelism with the place structure of pilno makes the additional syllable worthwhile.

Some BAI cmavo make sense with as well as without a SE cmavo; for example, ka'a , the BAI corresponding to the gismu klama , has five usable forms corresponding to the five places of klama respectively:

ka'a

with-goer

seka'a

with-destination

teka'a

with-origin

veka'a

with-route

xeka'a

with-means-of-transport

Any of these tags may be used to provide modal places for bridi, as in the following examples:

Example 9.29. 

la .eivn. cu vecnu loi flira cinta ka'a mi
That-named Avon sells a-mass-of face paint with-goer me.

I am a traveling cosmetics salesperson for Avon.


( Example 9.29 may seem a bit strained, but it illustrates the way in which an existing selbri, vecnu in this case, may have a place added to it which might otherwise seem utterly unrelated.)

Example 9.30. 

mi cadzu seka'a la .bratfyd.
I walk with-destination that-named Bradford.

I am walking to Bradford.


Example 9.31. 

bloti teka'a la .nu,IORK.
[Observative:]-is-a-boat with-origin that-named New-York

A boat from New York!


Example 9.32. 

do bajra veka'a lo djine
You run with-route a circle.

You are running in circles.


Example 9.33. 

mi citka xeka'a le vinji
I eat with-means-of-transport the airplane.

I eat in the airplane.


There are sixty-odd cmavo of selma'o BAI, based on selected gismu that seemed useful in a variety of settings. The list is somewhat biased toward English, because many of the cmavo were selected on the basis of corresponding English prepositions and preposition compounds such as with , without , and by means of. The BAI cmavo, however, are far more precise than English prepositions, because their meanings are fixed by the place structures of the corresponding gismu.

All BAI cmavo have the form CV'V or CVV. Most of them are CV'V, where the C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu and the two Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The table in Section 9.16 shows the exceptions.

There is one additional BAI cmavo that is not derived from a gismu: do'e. This cmavo is used when an extra place is needed, but it seems useful to be vague about the semantic implications of the extra place:

Example 9.34. 

lo nanmu be do'e le berti cu klama le tcadu
Some man [related-to] the north came to-the city.

A man of the north came to the city.


Here le berti is provided as a modal place of the selbri nanmu , but its exact significance is vague, and is paralleled in the colloquial translation by the vague English preposition of. Example 9.34 also illustrates a modal place bound into a selbri with be. This construction is useful when the selbri of a description requires a modal place; this and other uses of be are more fully explained in Section 5.7.

9.7. Modal sentence connection: the causals

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ri'a

BAI

rinka modal: physical cause

ki'u

BAI

krinu modal: justification

mu'i

BAI

mukti modal: motivation

ni'i

BAI

nibli modal: logical entailment

This section has two purposes. On the one hand, it explains the grammatical construct called modal sentence connection. On the other, it exemplifies some of the more useful BAI cmavo: the causals. (There are other BAI cmavo which have causal implications: ja'e means with result , and so seja'e means with cause of unspecified nature ; likewise, gau means with agent and tezu'e means with purpose. These other modal cmavo will not be further discussed here, as my purpose is to explain modal sentence connection rather than Lojbanic views of causation.)

There are four causal gismu in Lojban, distinguishing different versions of the relationships lumped in English as causal :

rinka event x1 physically causes event x2
krinu event x1 is the justification for event x2
mukti event x1 is the (human) motive for event x2
nibli event x1 logically entails event x2

Each of these gismu has a related modal: ri'a , ki'u , mu'i , and ni'i respectively. Using these gismu and these modals, we can create various causal sentences with different implications:

Example 9.35. 

le spati cu banro ri'a le nu
The plant grows with-physical-cause the event-of
do djacu dunda fi le spati
you water give to the plant.

The plant grows because you water it.


Example 9.36. 

la .djan. cpacu le pamoi se jinga
John gets the first prize
ki'u le nu la .djan. jinga
with-justification the event-of that-named John wins.

John got the first prize because he won.


Example 9.37. 

mi lebna le cukta mu'i
I took the book with-motivation
le nu mi viska le cukta
the event-of I saw the book.

I took the book because I saw it.


Example 9.38. 

la .sokrates. morsi binxo ni'i
Socrates dead became with-logical-justification
le nu la .sokrates. remna
the event-of that-named Socrates is-human.

Socrates died because Socrates is human.


In Example 9.35 through Example 9.38 , the same English word because is used to translate all four modals, but the types of cause being expressed are quite different. Let us now focus on Example 9.35 , and explore some variations on it.

As written, Example 9.35 claims that the plant grows, but only refers to the event of watering it in an abstraction bridi (abstractions are explained in Chapter 11) without actually making a claim. If I express Example 9.35 , I have said that the plant in fact grows, but I have not said that you actually water it, merely that there is a causal relationship between watering and growing. This is semantically asymmetrical. Suppose I wanted to claim that the plant was being watered, and only mention its growth as ancillary information? Then we could reverse the main bridi and the abstraction bridi, saying:

Example 9.39. 

do djacu dunda fi le spati
You water give to the plant
seri'a le nu ri banro
with-physical-effect the event-of it grows.

You water the plant; therefore, it grows.


with the ri'a changed to seri'a. In addition, there are also symmetrical forms:

Example 9.40. 

le nu do djacu dunda fi le spati cu
The event-of (you water give to the plant)
rinka le nu le spati cu banro
causes the event-of (the plant grows).

Your watering the plant causes its growth.

If you water the plant, then it grows.


does not claim either event, but asserts only the causal relationship between them. So in Example 9.40 , I am not saying that the plant grows nor that you have in fact watered it. The second colloquial translation shows a form of if-then in English quite distinct from the logical connective if-then explained in Chapter 14.

Suppose we wish to claim both events as well as their causal relationship? We can use one of two methods:

Example 9.41. 

le spati cu banro .iri'abo do
The plant grows. Because you
djacu dunda fi le spati
water give to the plant.

The plant grows because you water it.


Example 9.42. 

do djacu dunda fi le spati
You water give to the plant.
.iseri'abo le spati cu banro
Therefore the plant grows.

You water the plant; therefore, it grows.


The compound cmavo .iri'abo and .iseri'abo serve to connect two bridi, as the initial .i indicates. The final bo is necessary to prevent the modal from taking over the following sumti. If the bo were omitted from Example 9.41 we would have:

Example 9.43. 

le spati cu banro .i ri'a do
The plant grows. Because-of you,
djacu dunda fi le spati
[something] water gives to the plant.

The plant grows. Because of you, water is given to the plant.


Because ri'a do is a modal sumti in Example 9.43 , there is no longer an explicit sumti in the x1 place of djacu dunda , and the translation must be changed.

The effect of sentences like Example 9.41 and Example 9.42 is that the modal, ri'a in this example, no longer modifies an explicit sumti. Instead, the sumti is implicit, the event given by a full bridi. Furthermore, there is a second implication: that the first bridi fills the x2 place of the gismu rinka ; it specifies an event which is the effect. I am therefore claiming three things: that the plant grows, that you have watered it, and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two.

In principle, any modal tag can appear in a sentence connective of the type exemplified by Example 9.41 and Example 9.42. However, it makes little sense to use any modals which do not expect events or other abstractions to fill the places of the corresponding gismu. The sentence connective .ibaubo is perfectly grammatical, but it is hard to imagine any two sentences which could be connected by an in-language modal. This is because a sentence describes an event, and an event can be a cause or an effect, but not a language.

9.8. Other modal connections

Like many Lojban grammatical constructions, sentence modal connection has both forethought and afterthought forms. (See Chapter 14 for a more detailed discussion of Lojban connectives.) Section 9.7 exemplifies only afterthought modal connection, illustrated here by:

Example 9.44. 

mi jgari lei djacu
I grasp the-mass-of water
.iri'abo mi jgari le kabri
with-physical-cause I grasp the cup.

Causing the mass of water to be grasped by me, I grasped the cup.

I grasp the water because I grasp the cup.


An afterthought connection is one that is signaled only by a cmavo (or a compound cmavo, in this case) between the two constructs being connected. Forethought connection uses a signal both before the first construct and between the two: the use of both and and in the first half of this sentence represents a forethought connection (though not a modal one).

To make forethought modal sentence connections in Lojban, place the modal plus gi before the first bridi, and gi between the two. No .i is used within the construct. The forethought equivalent of Example 9.44 is:

Example 9.45. 

ri'agi mi jgari le kabri gi
With-physical-cause I grasp the cup ,
mi jgari lei djacu
I grasp the-mass-of water.

Because I grasp the cup, I grasp the water.


Note that the cause, the x1 of rinka is now placed first. To keep the two bridi in the original order of Example 9.44 , we could say:

Example 9.46. 

seri'agi mi jgari lei djacu gi
With-physical-effect I grasp the-mass-of water ,
mi jgari le kabri
I grasp the cup.

In English, the sentence Therefore I grasp the water, I grasp the cup is ungrammatical, because therefore is not grammatically equivalent to because. In Lojban, seri'agi can be used just like ri'agi.

When the two bridi joined by a modal connection have one or more elements (selbri or sumti or both) in common, there are various condensed forms that can be used in place of full modal sentence connection with both bridi completely stated.

When the bridi are the same except for a single sumti, as in Example 9.44 through Example 9.46 , then a sumti modal connection may be employed:

Example 9.47. 

mi jgari ri'agi le kabri gi lei djacu
I grasp because the cup , the-mass-of water.

Example 9.47 means exactly the same as Example 9.44 through Example 9.46 , but there is no idiomatic English translation that will distinguish it from them.

If the two connected bridi are different in more than one sumti, then a termset may be employed. Termsets are explained more fully in Section 14.11 , but are essentially a mechanism for creating connections between multiple sumti simultaneously.

Example 9.48. 

mi dunda le cukta la .djan.
I gave the book to-that-named John.
.imu'ibo la .djan. dunda lei jdini mi
Motivated-by that-named John gave the-mass-of money to-me.

I gave the book to John, because John gave money to me.


means the same as:

Example 9.49. 

nu'i mu'igi la .djan. lei jdini mi gi
[start] because that-named John, the-mass-of money, me ;
mi le cukta la .djan. nu'u dunda
I, the book, that-named John [end] gives.

Here there are three sumti in each half of the termset, because the two bridi share only their selbri.

There is no modal connection between selbri as such: bridi which differ only in the selbri can be modally connected using bridi-tail modal connection. The bridi-tail construct is more fully explained in Section 14.9 , but essentially it consists of a selbri with optional sumti following it. Example 9.37 is suitable for bridi-tail connection, and could be shortened to:

Example 9.50. 

mi mu'igi viska le cukta gi lebna le cukta
I, because saw the book, took the book.

Again, no straightforward English translation exists. It is even possible to shorten Example 9.50 further to:

Example 9.51. 

mi mu'igi viska gi lebna vau le cukta
I because saw, therefore took, the book.

where le cukta is set off by the non-elidable vau and is made to belong to both bridi-tails – see Section 14.9 for more explanations.

Since this is a chapter on rearranging sumti, it is worth pointing out that Example 9.51 can be further rearranged to:

Example 9.52. 

mi le cukta mu'igi viska gi lebna
I, the book, because saw, therefore took.

which doesn't require the extra vau ; all sumti before a conjunction of bridi-tails are shared.

Finally, mathematical operands can be modally connected.

Example 9.53. 

li ny. du li vo
the-number n = the-number 4.
.ini'ibo li ny. du li re su'i re
Entailed-by the-number n = the-number 2 + 2.

n = 4 because n = 2 + 2.


can be reduced to:

Example 9.54. 

li ny. du li
the-number n = the-number
ni'igi vei re su'i re [ve'o] gi vo
because ( 2 + 2 ) therefore 4.

n is 2 + 2, and is thus 4.


The cmavo vei and ve'o represent mathematical parentheses, and are required so that ni'igi affects more than just the immediately following operand, namely the first re. (The right parenthesis, ve'o , is an elidable terminator.) As usual, no English translation does Example 9.54 justice.

Note: Due to restrictions on the Lojban parsing algorithm, it is not possible to form modal connectives using the fi'o- plus-selbri form of modal. Only the predefined modals of selma'o BAI can be compounded as shown in Section 9.7 and Section 9.8.

9.9. Modal selbri

Consider the example:

Example 9.55. 

mi tavla bau la .lojban.
I speak in-language that-named Lojban
bai tu'a la .frank.
with-compeller some-act-by that-named Frank.

I speak in Lojban, under compulsion by Frank.


Example 9.55 has two modal sumti, using the modals bau and bai. Suppose we wanted to specify the language explicitly but be vague about who's doing the compelling. We can simplify Example 9.55 to:

Example 9.56. 

mi tavla bau la .lojban. bai [ku].
I speak in-language that-named Lojban under-compulsion

In Example 9.56 , the elidable terminator ku has taken the place of the sumti which would normally follow bai. Alternatively, we could specify the one who compels but keep the language vague:

Example 9.57. 

mi tavla bau [ku]
I speak in-some-language
bai tu'a la .frank.
under-compulsion-by some-act-by that-named Frank.

We are also free to move the modal-plus- ku around the bridi:

Example 9.58. 

bau [ku] bai ku mi tavla
In-some-language under-compulsion I speak.

An alternative to using ku is to place the modal cmavo right before the selbri, following the cu which often appears there. When a modal is present, the cu is almost never necessary.

Example 9.59. 

mi bai tavla bau la .lojban.
I compelledly speak in-language that-named Lojban.

In this use, the modal is like a tanru modifier semantically, although grammatically it is quite distinct. Example 9.59 is very similar in meaning to:

Example 9.60. 

mi se bapli tavla bau la .lojban.
I compelledly speak in-language that-named Lojban.

The se conversion is needed because bapli tavla would be a compeller type of speaker rather than a compelled (by someone) type of speaker , which is what a bai tavla is.

If the modal preceding a selbri is constructed using fi'o , then fe'u is required to prevent the main selbri and the modal selbri from colliding:

Example 9.61. 

mi fi'o kanla fe'u viska do
I with eye see you.

I see you with my eye(s).


There are two other uses of modals. A modal can be attached to a pair of bridi-tails that have already been connected by a logical, non-logical, or modal connection (see Chapter 14 for more on logical and non-logical connections):

Example 9.62. 

mi bai ke ge klama le zarci
I under-compulsion ( both go to-the market
gi cadzu le bisli [ke'e]
and walk on-the ice ).

Under compulsion, I both go to the market and walk on the ice.


Here the bai is spread over both klama le zarci and cadzu le bisli , and the ge ... gi represents the logical connection both-and between the two.

Similarly, a modal can be attached to multiple sentences that have been combined with tu'e and tu'u , which are explained in more detail in Section 19.2 :

Example 9.63. 

bai tu'e mi klama le zarci
Under-compulsion [start] I go to-the market.
.i mi cadzu le bisli [tu'u]
I walk on-the ice [end].

means the same thing as Example 9.62.

Note: Either BAI modals or fi'o- plus-selbri modals may correctly be used in any of the constructions discussed in this section.

9.10. Modal relative phrases; Comparison

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pe

GOI

restrictive relative phrase

ne

GOI

incidental relative phrase

mau

BAI

zmadu modal

me'a

BAI

mleca modal

Relative phrases and clauses are explained in much more detail in Chapter 8. However, there is a construction which combines a modal with a relative phrase which is relevant to this chapter. Consider the following examples of relative clauses:

Example 9.64. 

la .apasionatas. poi se cusku
The Appassionata which is-expressed-by
la .artr. .rubnstain. cu se nelci mi
that-named Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.

Example 9.65. 

la .apasionatas. noi se finti
The Appassionata, which is-created-by
la .betovn. cu se nelci mi
that-named Beethoven, is-liked-by me.

In Example 9.64 , la .apasionatas. refers to a particular performance of the sonata, namely the one performed by Rubinstein. Therefore, the relative clause poi se cusku uses the cmavo poi (of selma'o NOI) to restrict the meaning of la .apasionatas to the performance in question.

In Example 9.65 , however, la .apasionatas. refers to the sonata as a whole, and the information that it was composed by Beethoven is merely incidental. The cmavo noi (also of selma'o NOI) expresses the incidental nature of this relationship.

The cmavo pe and ne (of selma'o GOI) are roughly equivalent to poi and noi respectively, but are followed by sumti rather than full bridi. We can abbreviate Example 9.64 and Example 9.65 to:

Example 9.66. 

la .apasionatas. pe la .artr. .rubnstain. se nelci mi
The Appassionata of that-named Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.

Example 9.67. 

la .apasionatas. ne la .betovn. se nelci mi
The Appassionata, which-is-of that-named Beethoven, is-liked-by me.

Here the precise selbri of the relative clauses is lost: all we can tell is that the Appassionata is connected in some way with Rubinstein (in Example 9.66) and Beethoven (in Example 9.67), and that the relationships are respectively restrictive and incidental.

It happens that both cusku and finti have BAI cmavo, namely cu'u and fi'e. We can recast Example 9.66 and Example 9.67 as:

Example 9.68. 

la .apasionatas pe cu'u
The Appassionata expressed-by
la .artr. .rubnstain. cu se nelci mi
that-named Arthur Rubinstein is-liked-by me.

Example 9.69. 

la .apasionatas ne fi'e
The Appassionata, invented-by
la .betovn. cu se nelci mi
that-named Beethoven, is-liked-by me.

Example 9.68 and Example 9.69 have the full semantic content of Example 9.64 and Example 9.65 respectively.

Modal relative phrases are often used with the BAI cmavo mau and me'a , which are based on the comparative gismu zmadu (more than) and mleca (less than) respectively. The place structures are:

zmadu x1 is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4
mleca x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 by amount x4

Here are some examples:

Example 9.70. 

la .frank. nelci la .betis.
That-named Frank likes that-named Betty,
ne semau la .meiris.
which-is more-than that-named Mary.

Frank likes Betty more than (he likes) Mary.


Example 9.70 requires that Frank likes Betty, but adds the information that his liking for Betty exceeds his liking for Mary. The modal appears in the form semau because the x2 place of zmadu is the basis for comparison: in this case, Frank's liking for Mary.

Example 9.71. 

la .frank. nelci la .meiris.
That-named Frank likes that-named Mary,
ne seme'a la .betis.
which-is less-than that-named Betty.

Frank likes Mary less than (he likes) Betty.


Here we are told that Frank likes Mary less than he likes Betty; the information about the comparison is the same. It would be possible to rephrase Example 9.70 using me'a rather than semau , and Example 9.71 using mau rather than seme'a , but such usage would be unnecessarily confusing. Like many BAI cmavo, mau and me'a are more useful when converted with se.

If the ne were omitted in Example 9.70 and Example 9.71 , the modal sumti ( la .meiris. and la .betis. respectively) would become attached to the bridi as a whole, producing a very different translation. Example 9.71 would become:

Example 9.72. 

la .frank. nelci la .meiris. seme'a la .betis.
That-named Frank likes that-named Mary is-less-than that-named Betty.

Frank's liking Mary is less than Betty.


which compares a liking with a person, and is therefore nonsense.

Pure comparison, which states only the comparative information but says nothing about whether Frank actually likes either Mary or Betty (he may like neither, but dislike Betty less), would be expressed differently, as:

Example 9.73. 

le ni la .frank.
The quantity-of that-named Frank's
nelci la .betis. cu
liking that-named Betty
zmadu le ni la .frank.
is-more-than the quantity-of that-named Frank's
nelci la .meiris.
liking that-named Mary.

The mechanisms explained in this section are appropriate to many modals other than semau and seme'a. Some other modals that are often associated with relative phrases are: seba'i ( instead of), ci'u ( on scale), de'i ( dated), du'i ( as much as). Some BAI tags can be used equally well in relative phrases or attached to bridi; others seem useful only attached to bridi. But it is also possible that the usefulness of particular BAI modals is an English-speaker bias, and that speakers of other languages may find other BAIs useful in divergent ways.

Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to fi'o- plus-selbri modals.

9.11. Mixed modal connection

It is possible to mix logical connection (explained in Chapter 14) with modal connection, in a way that simultaneously asserts the logical connection and the modal relationship. Consider the sentences:

Example 9.74. 

mi nelci do .ije mi nelci la .djein.
I like you. And I like that-named Jane.

which is a logical connection, and

Example 9.75. 

mi nelci do .iki'ubo mi nelci la .djein.
I like you. Justified-by I like that-named Jane.

The meanings of Example 9.74 and Example 9.75 can be simultaneously expressed by combining the two compound cmavo, thus:

Example 9.76. 

mi nelci do .ijeki'ubo mi nelci la .djein.
I like you. And-justified-by I like that-named Jane.

Here the two sentences mi nelci do and mi nelci la .djein. are simultaneously asserted, their logical connection is asserted, and their causal relationship is asserted. The logical connective je comes before the modal ki'u in all such mixed connections.

Since mi nelci do and mi nelci la .djein. differ only in the final sumti, we can transform Example 9.76 into a mixed sumti connection:

Example 9.77. 

mi nelci do .eki'ubo la .djein.
I like you and/because that-named Jane.

Note that this connection is an afterthought one. Mixed connectives are always afterthought; forethought connectives must be either logical or modal.

There are numerous other afterthought logical and non-logical connectives that can have modal information planted within them. For example, a bridi-tail connected version of Example 9.77 would be:

Example 9.78. 

mi nelci do gi'eki'ubo nelci la .djein.
I like you and/because like that-named Jane.

The following three complex examples all mean the same thing.

Example 9.79. 

mi bevri le dakli
I carry the sack.
.ijeseri'abo tu'e mi bevri le gerku
And-[effect] ( I carry the dog.
.ijadu'ibo mi bevri le mlatu [tu'u]
And/or-[equal] I carry the cat. )

I carry the sack. As a result I carry the dog or I carry the cat, equally.


Example 9.80. 

mi bevri le dakli
I carry the sack
gi'eseri'ake bevri le gerku
and-[effect] (carry the dog
gi'adu'ibo bevri le mlatu [ke'e]
and/or-[equal] carry the cat)

I carry the sack and as a result carry the dog or carry the cat equally.


Example 9.81. 

mi bevri le dakli
I carry the sack
.eseri'ake le gerku
and-[effect] (the dog
.adu'ibo le mlatu [ke'e]
and/or-[equal] the cat)

I carry the sack, and as a result the cat or the dog equally.


In Example 9.79 , the tu'etu'u brackets are the equivalent of the keke'e brackets in Example 9.80 and Example 9.81 , because keke'e cannot extend across more than one sentence. It would also be possible to change the .ijeseri'abo to .ije seri'a , which would show that the tu'etu'u portion was an effect, but would not pin down the mi bevri le dakli portion as the cause. It is legal for a modal (or a tense; see Chapter 10) to modify the whole of a tu'etu'u construct.

Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to fi'o- plus-selbri modals.

9.12. Modal conversion: JAI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jai

JAI

modal conversion

fai

FA

modal place structure tag

So far, conversion of numbered bridi places with SE and the addition of modal places with BAI have been two entirely separate operations. However, it is possible to convert a selbri in such a way that, rather than exchanging two numbered places, a modal place is made into a numbered place. For example,

Example 9.82. 

mi cusku bau la .lojban.
I express [something] in-language that-named Lojban.

has an explicit x1 place occupied by mi and an explicit bau place occupied by la .lojban. To exchange these two, we use a modal conversion operator consisting of jai (of selma'o JAI) followed by the modal cmavo. Thus, the modal conversion of Example 9.82 is:

Example 9.83. 

la .lojban. jai bau cusku fai mi
That-named Lojban is-the-language-of-expression used-by me.

In Example 9.83 , the modal place la .lojban. has become the x1 place of the new selbri jai bau cusku. What has happened to the old x1 place? There is no numbered place for it to move to, so it moves to a special unnumbered place marked by the tag fai of selma'o FA.

Note: For the purposes of place numbering, fai behaves like fi'a ; it does not affect the numbering of the other places around it.

Like SE conversions, JAI conversions are especially convenient in descriptions. We may refer to the language of an expression as le jai bau cusku , for example.

In addition, it is grammatical to use jai without a following modal. This usage is not related to modals, but is explained here for completeness. The effect of jai by itself is to send the x1 place, which should be an abstraction, into the fai position, and to raise one of the sumti from the abstract sub-bridi into the x1 place of the main bridi. This feature is discussed in more detail in Section 11.10. The following two examples mean the same thing:

Example 9.84. 

le nu mi lebna le cukta cu se krinu
The event-of (I take the book) is-justified-by
le nu mi viska le cukta
the event-of (I see the book).

My taking the book is justified by my seeing it.


Example 9.85. 

mi jai se krinu le nu mi viska le cukta kei
I am-justified-by the event-of (I see the book)
[fai le nu mi lebna le cukta]
[namely, the event-of (I take the book)]

I am justified in taking the book by seeing the book.


Example 9.85 , with the bracketed part omitted, allows us to say that I am justified whereas in fact it is my action that is justified. This construction is vague, but useful in representing natural-language methods of expression.

Note: The uses of modals discussed in this section are applicable both to BAI modals and to fi'o- plus-selbri modals.

9.13. Modal negation

Negation is explained in detail in Chapter 15. There are two forms of negation in Lojban: contradictory and scalar negation. Contradictory negation expresses what is false, whereas scalar negation says that some alternative to what has been stated is true. A simple example is the difference between John didn't go to Paris (contradictory negation) and John went to (somewhere) other than Paris (scalar negation).

Contradictory negation involving BAI cmavo is performed by appending -nai (of selma'o NAI) to the BAI. A common use of modals with -nai is to deny a causal relationship:

Example 9.86. 

mi nelci do mu'inai le nu do nelci mi

I like you, but not because you like me.


Example 9.86 denies that the relationship between my liking you (which is asserted) and your liking me (which is not asserted) is one of motivation. Nothing is said about whether you like me or not, merely that that hypothetical liking is not the motivation for my liking you.

Scalar negation is achieved by prefixing na'e (of selma'o NAhE), or any of the other cmavo of NAhE, to the BAI cmavo.

Example 9.87. 

le spati cu banro na'emu'i le nu
The plant grows other-than-motivated-by the event-of
do djacu dunda fi le spati
you water give to the plant.

Example 9.87 says that the relationship between the plant's growth and your watering it is not one of motivation: the plant is not motivated to grow, as plants are not something which can have motivation as a rule. Implicitly, some other relationship between watering and growth exists, but Example 9.87 doesn't say what it is (presumably ri'a).

Note: Modals made with fi'o plus a selbri cannot be negated directly. The selbri can itself be negated either with contradictory or with scalar negation, however.

9.14. Sticky modals

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ki

KI

stickiness flag

Like tenses, modals can be made persistent from the bridi in which they appear to all following bridi. The effect of this stickiness is to make the modal, along with its following sumti, act as if it appeared in every successive bridi. Stickiness is put into effect by following the modal (but not any following sumti) with the cmavo ki of selma'o KI. For example,

Example 9.88. 

mi tavla bau la .lojban. bai
I speak in-language that-named Lojban compelled-by
ki tu'a la .frank.
some-property-of that-named Frank.
.ibabo mi tavla bau la .gliban.
Afterward, I speak in-language that-named English.

means the same as:

Example 9.89. 

mi tavla bau la .lojban. bai
I speak in-language that-named Lojban compelled-by
tu'a la .frank.
some-property-of that-named Frank.
.ibabo mi tavla bau la .gliban. bai
Afterward, I speak in-language that-named English compelled-by
tu'a la .frank.
some-property-of that-named Frank.

In Example 9.88 , bai is made sticky, and so Frank's compelling is made applicable to every following bridi. bau is not sticky, and so the language may vary from bridi to bridi, and if not specified in a particular bridi, no assumption can safely be made about its value.

To cancel stickiness, use the form BAI ki ku , which stops any modal value for the specified BAI from being passed to the next bridi. To cancel stickiness for all modals simultaneously, and also for any sticky tenses that exist ( ki is used for both modals and tenses), use ki by itself, either before the selbri or (in the form ki ku) anywhere in the bridi:

Example 9.90. 

mi ki tavla

I speak (no implication about language or compulsion).


Note: Modals made with fi'o -plus-selbri cannot be made sticky. This is an unfortunate, but unavoidable, restriction.

9.15. Logical and non-logical connection of modals

Logical and non-logical connectives are explained in detail in Chapter 14. For the purposes of this chapter, it suffices to point out that a logical (or non-logical) connection between two bridi which differ only in a modal can be reduced to a single bridi with a connective between the modals. As a result, Example 9.91 and Example 9.92 mean the same thing:

Example 9.91. 

la .frank. bajra seka'a le zdani
That-named Frank runs with-destination the house.
.ije la .frank. bajra teka'a le zdani
And that-named Frank runs with-origin the house.

Frank runs to the house, and Frank runs from the house.


Example 9.92. 

la .frank. bajra seka'a
That-named Frank runs with-destination
je teka'a le zdani
and with-origin the house.

Frank runs to and from the house.


Neither example implies whether a single act, or two acts, of running is referred to. To compel the sentence to refer to a single act of running, you can use the form:

Example 9.93. 

la .frank. bajra seka'a le zdani
That-named Frank runs with-destination the house
ce'e teka'a le zdani
[joined-to] with-origin the house.

The cmavo ce'e creates a termset containing two terms (termsets are explained in Chapter 14 and Chapter 16). When a termset contains more than one modal tag derived from a single BAI, the convention is that the two tags are derived from a common event.

9.16. CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms

There are 65 cmavo of selma'o BAI, of which all but one ( do'e , discussed in Section 9.6), are derived directly from selected gismu. Of these 64 cmavo, 36 are entirely regular and have the form CV'V, where C is the first consonant of the corresponding gismu, and the Vs are the two vowels of the gismu. The remaining BAI cmavo, which are irregular in one way or another, are listed in the table below. The table is divided into sub-tables according to the nature of the exception; some cmavo appear in more than one sub-table, and are so noted.

Table 9.1. Monosyllables of the form CVV

cmavo gismu comments

bai

bapli

bau

bangu

cau

claxu

fau

fasnu

gau

gasnu

kai

ckaji

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

mau

zmadu

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

koi

korbi

rai

traji

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

sau

sarcu

tai

tamsmi

based on lujvo, not gismu

zau

zanru


Table 9.2. Second consonant of the gismu as the C: (the gismu is always of the form CCVCV)

ga'a

zgana

kai

ckaji

has CVV form (monosyllable)

ki'i

ckini

la'u

klani

has irregular 2nd V

le'a

klesi

has irregular 2nd V

mau

zmadu

has CVV form (monosyllable)

me'e

cmene

ra'a

srana

ra'i

krasi

rai

traji

has CVV form (monosyllable)

ti'i

stidi

tu'i

stuzi


Table 9.3. Irregular 2nd V

fi'e

finti

la'u

klani

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

le'a

klesi

uses 2nd consonant of gismu

ma'e

marji

mu'u

mupli

ti'u

tcika

va'o

vanbi


Table 9.4. Special cases

ri'i

lifri

uses 3rd consonant of gismu

tai

tamsmi

based on lujvo, not gismu

va'u

xamgu

CV'V cmavo can't begin with x


9.17. Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents

The following table shows all the cmavo belonging to selma'o BAI, and has seven columns. The first column is the cmavo itself; the second column is the gismu linked to it. The third column gives an English phrase which indicates the meaning of the cmavo; the fourth column indicates its meaning when preceded by se.

For those cmavo with meaningful te , ve , and even xe conversions (depending on the number of places of the underlying gismu), the meanings of these are shown in the next columns.

It should be emphasized that the place structures of the gismu control the meanings of the BAI cmavo. The English phrases shown here are only suggestive, and are often too broad or too narrow to correctly specify what the acceptable range of uses for the modal tag are.

ba'i

basti

bai

bapli

bau

bangu

be'i

benji

ca'i

catni

cau

claxu

ci'e

ciste

ci'o

cinmo

ci'u

ckilu

cu'u

cusku

de'i

detri

di'o

diklo

do'e

-----

du'i

dunli

du'o

djuno

fa'e

fatne

fau

fasnu

fi'e

finti

ga'a

zgana

gau

gasnu

ja'e

jalge

ja'i

javni

ji'e

jimte

ji'o

jitro

ji'u

jicmu

ka'a

klama

ka'i

krati

kai

ckaji

ki'i

ckini

ki'u

krinu

koi

korbi

ku'u

kulnu

la'u

klani

le'a

klesi

li'e

lidne

ma'e

marji

ma'i

manri

mau

zmadu

me'a

mleca

me'e

cmene

mu'i

mukti

mu'u

mupli

ni'i

nibli

pa'a

panra

pa'u

pagbu

pi'o

pilno

po'i

porsi

pu'a

pluka

pu'e

pruce

ra'a

srana

ra'i

krasi

rai

traji

ri'a

rinka

ri'i

lifri

sau

sarcu

si'u

sidju

ta'i

tadji

tai

tamsmi

ti'i

stidi

ti'u

tcika

tu'i

stuzi

va'o

vanbi

va'u

xamgu

zau

zanru

zu'e

zukte

The lujvo tamsmi on which tai is based is derived from the tanru tarmi simsa and has the place structure:

tamsmi x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x4

This lujvo is employed because tarmi does not have a place structure useful for the modal's purpose.

Chapter 10. Imaginary journeys: the Lojban space/time tense system

The picture for chapter 10

10.1. Introductory

This chapter attempts to document and explain the space/time tense system of Lojban. It does not attempt to answer all questions of the form How do I say such-and-such (an English tense) in Lojban? Instead, it explores the Lojban tense system from the inside, attempting to educate the reader into a Lojbanic viewpoint. Once the overall system is understood and the resources that it makes available are familiar, the reader should have some hope of using appropriate tense constructs and being correctly understood.

The system of Lojban tenses presented here may seem really complex because of all the pieces and all the options; indeed, this chapter is the longest one in this book. But tense is in fact complex in every language. In your native language, the subtleties of tense are intuitive. In foreign languages, you are seldom taught the entire system until you have reached an advanced level. Lojban tenses are extremely systematic and productive, allowing you to express subtleties based on what they mean rather than on how they act similarly to English tenses. This chapter concentrates on presenting an intuitive approach to the meaning of Lojban tense words and how they may be creatively and productively combined.

What is tense ? Historically, tense is the attribute of verbs in English and related languages that expresses the time of the action. In English, three tenses are traditionally recognized, conventionally called the past, the present, and the future. There are also a variety of compound tenses used in English. However, there is no simple relationship between the form of an English tense and the time actually expressed:

  • I go to London tomorrow.

  • I will go to London tomorrow.

  • I am going to London tomorrow.

all mean the same thing, even though the first sentence uses the present tense; the second, the future tense; and the third, a compound tense usually called present progressive. Likewise, a newspaper headline says JONES DIES , although it is obvious that the time referred to must be in the past. Tense is a mandatory category of English: every sentence must be marked for tense, even if in a way contrary to logic, because every main verb has a tense marker built into to it. By contrast, Lojban brivla have no implicit tense marker attached to them.

In Lojban, the concept of tense extends to every selbri, not merely the verb-like ones. In addition, tense structures provide information about location in space as well as in time. All tense information is optional in Lojban: a sentence like:

Example 10.1. 

mi klama le zarci
I go-to the market.

can be understood as:

  • I went to the market.

  • I am going to the market.

  • I have gone to the market.

  • I will go to the market.

  • I continually go to the market.

as well as many other possibilities: context resolves which is correct.

The placement of a tense construct within a Lojban bridi is easy: right before the selbri. It goes immediately after the cu , and can in fact always replace the cu (although in very complex sentences the rules for eliding terminators may be changed as a result). In the following examples, pu is the tense marker for past time :

Example 10.2. 

mi cu pu klama le zarci
mi pu klama le zarci
I in-the-past go-to the market.

I went to the market.


It is also possible to put the tense somewhere else in the bridi by adding ku after it. This ku is an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to actually elide it except at the end of the bridi:

Example 10.3. 

puku mi klama le zarci
In-the-past I go-to the market.

Earlier, I went to the market.


Example 10.4. 

mi klama puku le zarci
I go-to in-the-past the market.

I went earlier to the market.


Example 10.5. 

mi klama le zarci pu [ku]
I go-to the market in-the-past.

I went to the market earlier.


Example 10.2 through Example 10.5 are different only in emphasis. Abnormal order, such as Example 10.3 through Example 10.5 exhibit, adds emphasis to the words that have been moved; in this case, the tense cmavo pu. Words at either end of the sentence tend to be more noticeable.

10.2. Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

vi

VA

short distance

va

VA

medium distance

vu

VA

long distance

zu'a

FAhA

left

ri'u

FAhA

right

ga'u

FAhA

up

ni'a

FAhA

down

ca'u

FAhA

front

ne'i

FAhA

within

be'a

FAhA

north of

(The complete list of FAhA cmavo can be found in Section 10.28.)

Why is this section about spatial tenses rather than the more familiar time tenses of Section 10.1 , asks the reader? Because the model to be used in explaining both will be easier to grasp for space than for time. The explanation of time tenses will resume in Section 10.4.

English doesn't have mandatory spatial tenses. Although there are plenty of ways in English of showing where an event happens, there is absolutely no need to do so. Considering this fact may give the reader a feel for what the optional Lojban time tenses are like. From the Lojban point of view, space and time are interchangeable, although they are not treated identically.

Lojban specifies the spatial tense of a bridi (the place at which it occurs) by using words from selma'o FAhA and VA to describe an imaginary journey from the speaker to the place referred to. FAhA cmavo specify the direction taken in the journey, whereas VA cmavo specify the distance gone. For example:

Example 10.6. 

le nanmu va batci le gerku
The man [medium-distance] bites the dog.

Over there the man is biting the dog.


What is at a medium distance? The event referred to by the bridi: the man biting the dog. What is this event at a medium distance from? The speaker's location. We can understand the va as saying: If you want to get from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, journey for a medium distance (in some direction unspecified). This imaginary journey can be used to understand not only Example 10.6 , but also every other spatial tense construct.

Suppose you specify a direction with a FAhA cmavo, rather than a distance with a VA cmavo:

Example 10.7. 

le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku
The man [left] bites the dog.

Here the imaginary journey is again from the speaker's location to the location of the bridi, but it is now performed by going to the left (in the speaker's reference frame) for an unspecified distance. So a reasonable translation is:

To my left, the man bites the dog.

The my does not have an explicit equivalent in the Lojban, because the speaker's location is understood as the starting point.

(Etymologically, by the way, zu'a is derived from zunle , the gismu for left , whereas vi , va , and vu are intended to be reminiscent of ti , ta , and tu , the demonstrative pronouns this-here , that-there , and that-yonder.)

What about specifying both a direction and a distance? The rule here is that the direction must come before the distance:

Example 10.8. 

le nanmu zu'avi batci le gerku
The man [left-short-distance] bites the dog.

Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.


As explained in Section 10.1 , it would be perfectly correct to use ku to move this tense to the beginning or the end of the sentence to emphasize it:

Example 10.9. 

zu'aviku le nanmu cu batci le gerku
[Left-short-distance] the man bites the dog.

Slightly to my left, the man bites the dog.


10.3. Compound spatial tenses

Humph, says the reader: this talk of imaginary journeys is all very well, but what's the point of it? – zu'a means on the left and vi means nearby , and there's no more to be said. The imaginary-journey model becomes more useful when so-called compound tenses are involved. A compound tense is exactly like a simple tense, but has several FAhAs run together:

Example 10.10. 

le nanmu ga'u zu'a batci le gerku
The man [up] [left] bites the dog.

The proper interpretation of Example 10.10 is that the imaginary journey has two stages: first move from the speaker's location upward, and then to the left. A translation might read:

Left of a place above me, the man bites the dog.

(Perhaps the speaker is at the bottom of a manhole, and the dog-biting is going on at the edge of the street.)

In the English translation, the keywords left and above occur in reverse order to the Lojban order. This effect is typical of what happens when we unfold Lojban compound tenses into their English equivalents, and shows why it is not very useful to try to memorize a list of Lojban tense constructs and their colloquial English equivalents.

The opposite order also makes sense:

Example 10.11. 

le nanmu zu'a ga'u batci le gerku
The man [left] [up] bites the dog.

Above a place to the left of me, the man bites the dog.


In ordinary space, the result of going up and then to the left is the same as that of going left and then up, but such a simple relationship does not apply in all environments or to all directions: going south, then east, then north may return one to the starting point, if that point is the North Pole.

Each direction can have a distance following:

Example 10.12. 

le nanmu zu'avi ga'u vu batci le gerku
The man [left-short-distance] [up] [long-distance] bites the dog.

Far above a place slightly to the left of me, the man bites the dog.


A distance can also come at the beginning of the tense construct, without any specified direction. ( Example 10.6 , with VA alone, is really a special case of this rule when no directions at all follow.)

Example 10.13. 

le nanmu vi zu'a batci le gerku
The man [short-distance] [left] bites the dog.

Left of a place near me, the man bites the dog.


Any number of directions may be used in a compound tense, with or without specified distances for each:

Example 10.14. 

le nanmu ca'u vi ni'a va ri'u vu
The man [front] [short] [down] [medium] [right] [long]
ne'i batci le gerku
[within] bites the dog.

Within a place a long distance to the right of a place which is a medium distance downward from a place a short distance in front of me, the man bites the dog.


Whew! It's a good thing tense constructs are optional: having to say all that could certainly be painful. Note, however, how much shorter the Lojban version of Example 10.14 is than the English version.

10.4. Temporal tenses: PU and ZI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pu

PU

past

ca

PU

present

ba

PU

future

zi

ZI

short time distance

za

ZI

medium time distance

zu

ZI

long time distance

Now that the reader understands spatial tenses, there are only two main facts to understand about temporal tenses: they work exactly like the spatial tenses, with selma'o PU and ZI standing in for FAhA and VA; and when both spatial and temporal tense cmavo are given in a single tense construct, the temporal tense is expressed first. (If space could be expressed before or after time at will, then certain constructions would be ambiguous.)

Example 10.15. 

le nanmu pu batci le gerku
The man [past] bites the dog.

The man bit the dog.


means that to reach the dog-biting, you must take an imaginary journey through time, moving towards the past an unspecified distance. (Of course, this journey is even more imaginary than the ones talked about in the previous sections, since time-travel is not an available option.)

Lojban recognizes three temporal directions: pu for the past, ca for the present, and ba for the future. (Etymologically, these derive from the corresponding gismu purci , cabna , and balvi. See Section 10.23 for an explanation of the exact relationship between the cmavo and the gismu.) There are many more spatial directions, since there are FAhA cmavo for both absolute and relative directions as well as direction-like relationships like surrounding , within , touching , etc. (See Section 10.27 for a complete list.) But there are really only two directions in time: forward and backward, toward the future and toward the past. Why, then, are there three cmavo of selma'o PU?

The reason is that tense is subjective: human beings perceive space and time in a way that does not necessarily agree with objective measurements. We have a sense of now which includes part of the objective past and part of the objective future, and so we naturally segment the time line into three parts. The Lojban design recognizes this human reality by providing a separate time-direction cmavo for the zero direction. Similarly, there is a FAhA cmavo for the zero space direction: bu'u , which means something like coinciding.

(Technical note for readers conversant with relativity theory: The Lojban time tenses reflect time as seen by the speaker, who is assumed to be a point-like observer in the relativistic sense: they do not say anything about physical relationships of relativistic interval, still less about implicit causality. The nature of tense is not only subjective but also observer-based.)

Here are some examples of temporal tenses:

Example 10.16. 

le nanmu puzi batci le gerku
The man [past-short-distance] bites the dog.

A short time ago, the man bit the dog.


Example 10.17. 

le nanmu pu pu batci le gerku
The man [past] [past] bites the dog.

Earlier than an earlier time than now, the man bit the dog.

The man had bitten the dog.

The man had been biting the dog.


Example 10.18. 

le nanmu ba puzi batci le gerku
The man [future] [past-short] bites the dog.

Shortly earlier than some time later than now, the man will bite the dog.

Soon before then, the man will have bitten the dog.

The man will have just bitten the dog.

The man will just have been biting the dog.


What about the analogue of an initial VA without a direction? Lojban does allow an initial ZI with or without following PUs:

Example 10.19. 

le nanmu zi pu batci le gerku
The man [short] [past] bites the dog.

Before a short time from or before now, the man bit or will bite the dog.


Example 10.20. 

le nanmu zu batci le gerku
The man [long] bites the dog.

A long time from or before now, the man will bite or bit the dog.


Example 10.19 and Example 10.20 are perfectly legitimate, but may not be very much used: zi by itself signals an event that happens at a time close to the present, but without saying whether it is in the past or the future. A rough translation might be about now, but not exactly now.

Because we can move in any direction in space, we are comfortable with the idea of events happening in an unspecified space direction ( nearby or far away), but we live only from past to future, and the idea of an event which happens nearby in time is a peculiar one. Lojban provides lots of such possibilities that don't seem all that useful to English-speakers, even though you can put them together productively; this fact may be a limitation of English.

Finally, here are examples which combine temporal and spatial tense:

Example 10.21. 

le nanmu puzu vu batci le gerku
The man [past-long-time] [long-space] bites the dog.

Long ago and far away, the man bit the dog.


Alternatively,

Example 10.22. 

le nanmu cu batci le gerku puzuvuku
The man   bites the dog [past-long-time-long-space].

The man bit the dog long ago and far away.


10.5. Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ve'i

VEhA

short space interval

ve'a

VEhA

medium space interval

ve'u

VEhA

long space interval

ze'i

ZEhA

short time interval

ze'a

ZEhA

medium time interval

ze'u

ZEhA

long time interval

So far, we have considered only events that are usually thought of as happening at a particular point in space and time: a man biting a dog at a specified place and time. But Lojbanic events may be much more spread out than that: mi vasxu (I breathe) is something which is true during the whole of my life from birth to death, and over the entire part of the earth where I spend my life. The cmavo of VEhA (for space) and ZEhA (for time) can be added to any of the tense constructs we have already studied to specify the size of the space or length of the time over which the bridi is claimed to be true.

Example 10.23. 

le verba ve'i cadzu le bisli
The child [small-space-interval] walks-on the ice.

In a small space, the child walks on the ice.

The child walks about a small area of the ice.


means that her walking was done in a small area. Like the distances, the interval sizes are classified only roughly as small, medium, large , and are relative to the context: a small part of a room might be a large part of a table in that room.

Here is an example using a time interval:

Example 10.24. 

le verba ze'a cadzu le bisli
The child [medium-time-interval] walks-on the ice.

For a medium time, the child walks/walked/will walk on the ice.


Note that with no time direction word, Example 10.24 does not say when the walking happened: that would be determined by context. It is possible to specify both directions or distances and an interval, in which case the interval always comes afterward:

Example 10.25. 

le verba pu ze'a cadzu le bisli
The child [past] [medium-time-interval] walks-on the ice.

For a medium time, the child walked on the ice.

The child walked on the ice for a while.


In Example 10.25 , the relationship of the interval to the specified point in time or space is indeterminate. Does the interval start at the point, end at the point, or is it centered on the point? By adding an additional direction cmavo after the interval, this question can be conclusively answered:

Example 10.26. 

mi ca ze'ica cusku dei
I [present] [short-time-interval-present] express this-utterance.

I am now saying this sentence.


means that for an interval starting a short time in the past and extending to a short time in the future, I am expressing the utterance which is Example 10.26. Of course, short is relative, as always in tenses. Even a long sentence takes up only a short part of a whole day; in a geological context, the era of Homo sapiens would only be a ze'i interval.

By contrast,

Example 10.27. 

mi ca ze'ipu cusku dei
I [present] [short-time-interval-past] express this-utterance.

I have just been saying this sentence.


means that for a short time interval extending from the past to the present I have been expressing Example 10.27. Here the imaginary journey starts at the present, lays down one end point of the interval, moves into the past, and lays down the other endpoint. Another example:

Example 10.28. 

mi pu ze'aba citka le mi sanmi
I [past] [medium-time-interval-future] eat the of-me meal.

For a medium time afterward, I ate my meal.

I ate my meal for a while.


With ca instead of ba , Example 10.28 becomes Example 10.29 ,

Example 10.29. 

mi pu ze'aca citka le mi sanmi
I [past] [medium-time-interval-present] eat the of-me meal.

For a medium time before and afterward, I ate my meal.

I ate my meal for a while.


because the interval would then be centered on the past moment rather than oriented toward the future of that moment. The colloquial English translations are the same – English is not well-suited to representing this distinction.

Here are some examples of the use of space intervals with and without specified directions:

Example 10.30. 

ta ri'u ve'i finpe
That-there [right] [short-space-interval] is-a-fish.

That thing on my right is a fish.


In Example 10.30 , there is no equivalent in the colloquial English translation of the small interval which the fish occupies. Neither the Lojban nor the English expresses the orientation of the fish. Compare Example 10.31 :

Example 10.31. 

ta ri'u ve'ica'u finpe
That-there [right] [short-space-interval-front] is-a-fish.

That thing on my right extending forwards is a fish.


Here the space interval occupied by the fish extends from a point on my right to another point in front of the first point.

10.6. Vague intervals and non-specific tenses

What is the significance of failing to specify an interval size of the type discussed in Section 10.5 ? The Lojban rule is that if no interval size is given, the size of the space or time interval is left vague by the speaker. For example:

Example 10.32. 

mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go-to the market.

really means:

At a moment in the past, and possibly other moments as well, the event I went to the market was in progress.

The vague or unspecified interval contains an instant in the speaker's past. However, there is no indication whether or not the whole interval is in the speaker's past! It is entirely possible that the interval during which the going-to-the-market is happening stretches into the speaker's present or even future.

Example 10.32 points up a fundamental difference between Lojban tenses and English tenses. An English past-tense sentence like I went to the market generally signifies that the going-to-the-market is entirely in the past; that is, that the event is complete at the time of speaking. Lojban pu has no such implication.

This property of a past tense is sometimes called aorist , in reference to a similar concept in the tense system of Classical Greek. All of the Lojban tenses have the same property, however:

Example 10.33. 

le tricu ba crino
The tree [future] is-green.

The tree will be green.


does not imply (as the colloquial English translation does) that the tree is not green now. The vague interval throughout which the tree is, in fact, green may have already started.

This general principle does not mean that Lojban has no way of indicating that a tree will be green but is not yet green. Indeed, there are several ways of expressing that concept: see Section 10.10 (event contours) and Section 10.20 (logical connection between tenses).

10.7. Dimensionality: VIhA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

vi'i

VIhA

on a line

vi'a

VIhA

in an area

vi'u

VIhA

through a volume

vi'e

VIhA

throughout a space/time interval

The cmavo of ZEhA are sufficient to express time intervals. One fundamental difference between space and time, however, is that space is multi-dimensional. Sometimes we want to say not only that something moves over a small interval, but also perhaps that it moves in a line. Lojban allows for this. I can specify that a motion in a small space is more specifically in a short line , in a small area , or through a small volume.

What about the child walking on the ice in Example 10.23 through Example 10.25 ? Given the nature of ice, probably the area interpretation is most sensible. I can make this assumption explicit with the appropriate member of selma'o VIhA:

Example 10.34. 

le verba ve'a vi'a cadzu le bisli
The child [medium-space-interval] [2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.

In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.


Space intervals can contain either VEhA or VIhA or both, but if both, VEhA must come first, as Example 10.34 shows.

The reader may wish to raise a philosophical point here. (Readers who don't wish to, should skip this paragraph.) The ice may be two-dimensional, or more accurately its surface may be, but since the child is three-dimensional, her walking must also be. The subjective nature of Lojban tense comes to the rescue here: the action is essentially planar, and the third dimension of height is simply irrelevant to walking. Even walking on a mountain could be called vi'a , because relatively speaking the mountain is associated with an essentially two-dimensional surface. Motion which is not confined to such a surface (e.g., flying, or walking through a three-dimensional network of tunnels, or climbing among mountains rather than on a single mountain) would be properly described with vi'u. So the cognitive, rather than the physical, dimensionality controls the choice of VIhA cmavo.

VIhA has a member vi'e which indicates a 4-dimensional interval, one that involves both space and time. This allows the spatial tenses to invade, to some degree, the temporal tenses; it is possible to make statements about space-time considered as an Einsteinian whole. (There are presently no cmavo of FAhA assigned to pastward and futureward considered as space rather than time directions – they could be added, though, if Lojbanists find space-time expression useful.) If a temporal tense cmavo is used in the same tense construct with a vi'e interval, the resulting tense may be self-contradictory.

10.8. Movement in space: MOhI

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

mo'i

MOhI

movement flag

All the information carried by the tense constructs so far presented has been presumed to be static: the bridi is occurring somewhere or other in space and time, more or less remote from the speaker. Suppose the truth of the bridi itself depends on the result of a movement, or represents an action being done while the speaker is moving? This too can be represented by the tense system, using the cmavo mo'i (of selma'o MOhI) plus a spatial direction and optional distance; the direction now refers to a direction of motion rather than a static direction from the speaker.

Example 10.35. 

le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.

The child walks toward my right on the ice.


This is quite different from:

Example 10.36. 

le verba ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [right] walks-on the ice.

To the right of me, the child walks on the ice.


In either case, however, the reference frame for defining right and left is the speaker's, not the child's. This can be changed thus:

Example 10.37. 

le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice
ma'i vo'a
in-reference-frame the-x1-place.

The child walks toward her right on the ice.


Example 10.37 is analogous to Example 10.35. The cmavo ma'i belongs to selma'o BAI (explained in Section 9.6), and allows specifying a reference frame.

Both a regular and a mo'i -flagged spatial tense can be combined, with the mo'i construct coming last:

Example 10.38. 

le verba zu'avu mo'i ri'uvi cadzu le bisli
The child [left-long] [movement] [right-short] walks-on the ice.

Far to the left of me, the child walks a short distance toward my right on the ice.


It is not grammatical to use multiple directions like zu'a ca'u after mo'i , but complex movements can be expressed in a separate bridi.

Here is an example of a movement tense on a bridi not inherently involving movement:

Example 10.39. 

mi mo'i ca'uvu citka le mi sanmi
I [movement] [front-long] eat the associated-with-me meal.

While moving a long way forward, I eat my meal.


(Perhaps I am eating in an airplane.)

There is no parallel facility in Lojban at present for expressing movement in time – time travel – but one could be added easily if it ever becomes useful.

10.9. Interval properties: TAhE and roi

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

di'i

TAhE

regularly

na'o

TAhE

typically

ru'i

TAhE

continuously

ta'e

TAhE

habitually

di'inai

TAhE

irregularly

na'onai

TAhE

atypically

ru'inai

TAhE

intermittently

ta'enai

TAhE

contrary to habit

roi

ROI

n times

roinai

ROI

other than n times

ze'e

ZEhA

whole time interval

ve'e

VEhA

whole space interval

Consider Lojban bridi which express events taking place in time. Whether a very short interval (a point) or a long interval of time is involved, the event may not be spread consistently throughout that interval. Lojban can use the cmavo of selma'o TAhE to express the idea of continuous or non-continuous actions.

Example 10.40. 

mi puzu ze'u velckule
I [past-long-distance] [long-interval] am-a-school-attendee (pupil).

Long ago I attended school for a long time.


probably does not mean that I attended school continuously throughout the whole of that long-ago interval. Actually, I attended school every day, except for school holidays. More explicitly,

Example 10.41. 

mi puzu ze'u di'i velckule
I [past-long-distance] [long-interval] [regularly] am-a-pupil.

Long ago I regularly attended school for a long time.


The four TAhE cmavo are differentiated as follows: ru'i covers the entirety of the interval, di'i covers the parts of the interval which are systematically spaced subintervals; na'o covers part of the interval, but exactly which part is determined by context; ta'e covers part of the interval, selected with reference to the behavior of the actor (who often, but not always, appears in the x1 place of the bridi).

Using TAhE does not require being so specific. Either the time direction or the time interval or both may be omitted (in which case they are vague). For example:

Example 10.42. 

mi ba ta'e klama le zarci
I [future] [habitually] go-to the market.
I will habitually go to the market.

I will make a habit of going to the market.


specifies the future, but the duration of the interval is indefinite. Similarly,

Example 10.43. 

mi na'o klama le zarci
I [typically] go-to the market.

I typically go/went/will go to the market.


illustrates an interval property in isolation. There are no distance or direction cmavo, so the point of time is vague; likewise, there is no interval cmavo, so the length of the interval during which these goings-to-the-market take place is also vague. As always, context will determine these vague values.

Intermittently is the polar opposite notion to continuously , and is expressed not with its own cmavo, but by adding the negation suffix -nai (which belongs to selma'o NAI) to ru'i. For example:

Example 10.44. 

le verba ru'inai cadzu le bisli
The child [continuously-not] walks-on the ice.

The child intermittently walks on the ice.


As shown in the cmavo table above, all the cmavo of TAhE may be negated with -nai ; ru'inai and di'inai are probably the most useful.

An intermittent event can also be specified by counting the number of times during the interval that it takes place. The cmavo roi (which belongs to selma'o ROI) can be appended to a number to make a quantified tense. Quantified tenses are common in English, but not so commonly named: they are exemplified by the adverbs never , once , twice , thrice , ... always , and by the related phrases many times , a few times , too many times , and so on. All of these are handled in Lojban by a number plus -roi :

Example 10.45. 

mi paroi klama le zarci
I [one-time] go-to the market.

I go to the market once.


Example 10.46. 

mi du'eroi klama le zarci
I [too-many-times] go-to the market.

I go to the market too often.


With the quantified tense alone, we don't know whether the past, the present, or the future is intended, but of course the quantified tense need not stand alone:

Example 10.47. 

mi pu reroi klama le zarci
I [past] [two-times] go-to the market.

I went to the market twice.


The English is slightly over-specific here: it entails that both goings-to-the-market were in the past, which may or may not be true in the Lojban sentence, since the implied interval is vague. Therefore, the interval may start in the past but extend into the present or even the future.

Adding -nai to roi is also permitted, and has the meaning other than (the number specified) :

Example 10.48. 

le ratcu reroinai citka le cirla
The rat [twice-not] eats the cheese.

The rat eats the cheese other than twice.


This may mean that the rat eats the cheese fewer times, or more times, or not at all.

It is necessary to be careful with sentences like Example 10.45 and Example 10.47 , where a quantified tense appears without an interval. What Example 10.47 really says is that during an interval of unspecified size, at least part of which was set in the past, the event of my going to the market happened twice. The example says nothing about what happened outside that vague time interval. This is often less than we mean. If we want to nail down that I went to the market once and only once, we can use the cmavo ze'e which represents the whole time interval : conceptually, an interval which stretches from time's beginning to its end:

Example 10.49. 

mi ze'e paroi klama le zarci
I [whole-interval] [once] go-to the market.

Since specifying no ZEhA leaves the interval vague, Example 10.47 might in appropriate context mean the same as Example 10.49 after all – but Example 10.49 allows us to be specific when specificity is necessary.

A PU cmavo following ze'e has a slightly different meaning from one that follows another ZEhA cmavo. The compound cmavo ze'epu signifies the interval stretching from the infinite past to the reference point (wherever the imaginary journey has taken you); ze'eba is the interval stretching from the reference point to the infinite future. The remaining form, ze'eca , makes specific the whole of time interpretation just given. These compound forms make it possible to assert that something has never happened without asserting that it never will.

Example 10.50. 

mi ze'epu noroi klama le zarci
I [whole-interval-past] [never] go-to the market.

I have never gone to the market.


says nothing about whether I might go in future.

The space equivalent of ze'e is ve'e , and it can be used in the same way with a quantified space tense: see Section 10.11 for an explanation of space interval modifiers.

10.10. Event contours: ZAhO and re'u

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pu'o

ZAhO

prospective

ca'o

ZAhO

continuitive

ba'o

ZAhO

retrospective

co'a

ZAhO

initiative

co'u

ZAhO

cessitive

mo'u

ZAhO

completitive

za'o

ZAhO

superfective

co'i

ZAhO

achievative

de'a

ZAhO

pausative

di'a

ZAhO

resumptive

re'u

ROI

ordinal tense

The cmavo of selma'o ZAhO express the Lojban version of what is traditionally called aspect. This is not a notion well expressed by English tenses, but many languages (including Chinese and Russian among Lojban's six source languages) consider it more important than the specification of mere position in time.

The event contours of selma'o ZAhO, with their bizarre keywords, represent the natural portions of an event considered as a process, an occurrence with an internal structure including a beginning, a middle, and an end. Since the keywords are scarcely self-explanatory, each ZAhO will be explained in detail here. Note that from the viewpoint of Lojban syntax, ZAhOs are interval modifiers like TAhEs or ROI compounds; if both are found in a single tense, the TAhE/ROI comes first and the ZAhO afterward. The imaginary journey described by other tense cmavo moves us to the portion of the event-as-process which the ZAhO specifies.

It is important to understand that ZAhO cmavo, unlike the other tense cmavo, specify characteristic portions of the event, and are seen from an essentially timeless perspective. The beginning of an event is the same whether the event is in the speaker's present, past, or future. It is especially important not to confuse the speaker-relative viewpoint of the PU tenses with the event-relative viewpoint of the ZAhO tenses.

The cmavo pu'o , ca'o , and ba'o (etymologically derived from the PU cmavo) refer to an event that has not yet begun, that is in progress, or that has ended, respectively:

Example 10.51. 

mi pu'o damba
I [prospective] fight.

I'm on the verge of fighting.


Example 10.52. 

la .stiv. ca'o bacru
That-named Steve [continuitive] utters.

Steve continues to talk.


Example 10.53. 

le verba ba'o cadzu le bisli
The child [retrospective] walks-on the ice.

The child is no longer walking on the ice.


As discussed in Section 10.6 , the simple PU cmavo make no assumptions about whether the scope of a past, present, or future event extends into one of the other tenses as well. Example 10.51 through Example 10.53 illustrate that these ZAhO cmavo do make such assumptions possible: the event in Example 10.51 has not yet begun, definitively; likewise, the event in Example 10.53 is definitely over.

Note that in Example 10.51 and Example 10.53 , pu'o and ba'o may appear to be reversed: pu'o , although etymologically connected with pu , is referring to a future event; whereas ba'o , connected with ba , is referring to a past event. This is the natural result of the event-centered view of ZAhO cmavo. The prospective, or pu'o , part of an event, is in the pastward portion of that event, when seen from the perspective of the event itself. It is only by inference that we suppose that Example 10.51 refers to the speaker's future: in fact, no PU tense is given, so the prospective part of the event need not be coincident with the speaker's present: pu'o is not necessarily, though in fact often is, the same as ca pu'o.

The cmavo in Example 10.51 through Example 10.53 refer to spans of time. There are also two points of time that can be usefully associated with an event: the beginning, marked by co'a , and the end, marked by co'u. Specifically, co'a marks the boundary between the pu'o and ca'o parts of an event, and co'u marks the boundary between the ca'o and ba'o parts:

Example 10.54. 

mi ba co'a citka le mi sanmi
I [future] [initiative] eat the associated-with-me meal.

I will begin to eat my meal.


Example 10.55. 

mi pu co'u citka le mi sanmi
I [past] [cessitive] eat the associated-with-me meal.

I ceased eating my meal.


Compare Example 10.54 with:

Example 10.56. 

mi ba di'i co'a bajra
I [future] [regularly] [initiative] run.

I will regularly begin to run.


which illustrates the combination of a TAhE with a ZAhO.

A process can have two end points, one reflecting the natural end (when the process is complete) and the other reflecting the actual stopping point (whether complete or not). Example 10.55 may be contrasted with:

Example 10.57. 

mi pu mo'u citka le mi sanmi
I [past] [completitive] eat the associated-with-me meal.

I finished eating my meal.


In Example 10.57 , the meal has reached its natural end; in Example 10.55 , the meal has merely ceased, without necessarily reaching its natural end.

A process such as eating a meal does not necessarily proceed uninterrupted. If it is interrupted, there are two more relevant point events: the point just before the interruption, marked by de'a , and the point just after the interruption, marked by di'a. Some examples:

Example 10.58. 

mi pu de'a citka le mi sanmi
I [past] [pausative] eat the associated-with-me meal.

I stopped eating my meal (with the intention of resuming).


Example 10.59. 

mi ba di'a citka le mi sanmi
I [future] [resumptive] eat the associated-with-me meal.

I will resume eating my meal.


In addition, it is possible for a process to continue beyond its natural end. The span of time between the natural and the actual end points is represented by za'o :

Example 10.60. 

le ctuca pu za'o ciksi
The teacher [past] [superfective] explained
le cmaci seldanfu le tadgri
the mathematics problem to-the student-group.

The teacher kept on explaining the mathematics problem to the class too long.


That is, the teacher went on explaining after the class already understood the problem.

An entire event can be treated as a single moment using the cmavo co'i :

Example 10.61. 

la .djan. pu co'i catra la djim
That-named John [past] [achievative] kills that-named Jim.

John was at the point in time where he killed Jim.


Finally, since an activity is cyclical, an individual cycle can be referred to using a number followed by re'u , which is the other cmavo of selma'o ROI:

Example 10.62. 

mi pare'u klama le zarci
I [first-time] go-to the store.

I go to the store for the first time (within a vague interval).


Note the difference between:

Example 10.63. 

mi pare'u paroi klama le zarci
I [first-time] [one-time] go-to the store.

For the first time, I go to the store once.


and

Example 10.64. 

mi paroi pare'u klama le zarci
I [one-time] [first-time] go-to the store.

There is one occasion on which I go to the store for the first time.


10.11. Space interval modifiers: FEhE

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fe'e

FEhE

space interval modifier flag

Like time intervals, space intervals can also be continuous, discontinuous, or repetitive. Rather than having a whole separate set of selma'o for space interval properties, we instead prefix the flag fe'e to the cmavo used for time interval properties. A space interval property would be placed just after the space interval size and/or dimensionality cmavo:

Example 10.65. 

ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni
You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space:] [regularly] sow the grain.

Sow the grain in a line and evenly!


Example 10.66. 

mi fe'e ciroi tervecnu lo selsalta
I [space:] [three-places] buy those-which-are salad-ingredients.

I buy salad ingredients in three locations.


Example 10.67. 

ze'e roroi ve'e fe'e roroi ku
[whole-time] [all-times] [whole-space] [space:] [all-places]
li re su'i re du li vo
The-number 2 + 2 = the-number 4.

Always and everywhere, two plus two is four.


As shown in Example 10.67 , when a tense comes first in a bridi, rather than in its normal position before the selbri (in this case du), it is emphasized.

The fe'e marker can also be used for the same purpose before members of ZAhO. (The cmavo be'a belongs to selma'o FAhA; it is the space direction meaning north of.)

Example 10.68. 

tu ve'abe'a fe'e co'a rokci
That-yonder [medium-space-interval-north] [space] [initiative] is-a-rock.

That is the beginning of a rock extending to my north.

That is the south face of a rock.


Here the notion of a beginning point represented by the cmavo co'a is transferred from beginning in time to beginning in space under the influence of the fe'e flag. Space is not inherently oriented, unlike time, which flows from past to future: therefore, some indication of orientation is necessary, and the ve'abe'a provides an orientation in which the south face is the beginning and the north face is the end , since the rock extends from south (near me) to north (away from me).

Many natural languages represent time by a space-based metaphor: in English, what is past is said to be behind us. In other languages, the metaphor is reversed. Here, Lojban is representing space (or space interval modifiers) by a time-based metaphor: the choice of a FAhA cmavo following a VEhA cmavo indicates which direction is mapped onto the future. (The choice of future rather than past is arbitrary, but convenient for English-speakers.)

If both a TAhE (or ROI) and a ZAhO are present as space interval modifiers, the fe'e flag must be prefixed to each.

10.12. Tenses as sumtcita

So far, we have seen tenses only just before the selbri, or (equivalently in meaning) floating about the bridi with ku. There is another major use for tenses in Lojban: as sumtcita, or argument tags. A tense may be used to add spatial or temporal information to a bridi as, in effect, an additional place:

Example 10.69. 

mi klama le zarci ca le nu do klama
I go-to the market [present] the event-of you go-to
le zdani
the house.

I go to the market when you go to the house.


Here ca does not appear before the selbri, nor with ku ; instead, it governs the following sumti, the le nu construct. What Example 10.69 asserts is that the action of the main bridi is happening at the same time as the event mentioned by that sumti. So ca , which means now when used with a selbri, means simultaneously-with when used with a sumti. Consider another example:

Example 10.70. 

mi klama le zarci pu le nu do pu klama
I go-to the market [past] the event-of you [past] go-to
le zdani
the house.

The second pu is simply the past tense marker for the event of your going to the house, and says that this event is in the speaker's past. How are we to understand the first pu , the sumtcita?

All of our imaginary journeys so far have started at the speaker's location in space and time. Now we are specifying an imaginary journey that starts at a different location, namely at the event of your going to the house. Example 10.70 then says that my going to the market is in the past, relative not to the speaker's present moment, but instead relative to the moment when you went to the house. Example 10.70 can therefore be translated:

I had gone to the market before you went to the house.

(Other translations are possible, depending on the ever-present context.) Spatial direction and distance sumtcita are exactly analogous:

Example 10.71. 

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka
The rat eats the cheese [short-time-distance] the park.

The rat eats the cheese near the park.


Example 10.72. 

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le vu panka
The rat eats the cheese [short-distance] the [long-distance] park

The rat eats the cheese near the faraway park.


Example 10.73. 

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vu le vi panka
The rat eats the cheese [long-distance] the [short-distance] park

The rat eats the cheese far away from the nearby park.


The event contours of selma'o ZAhO (and their space equivalents, prefixed with fe'e) are also useful as sumtcita. The interpretation of ZAhO tcita differs from that of FAhA, VA, PU, and ZI tcita, however. The event described in the sumti is viewed as a process, and the action of the main bridi occurs at the phase of the process which the ZAhO specifies, or at least some part of that phase. The action of the main bridi itself is seen as a point event, so that there is no issue about which phase of the main bridi is intended. For example:

Example 10.74. 

mi morsi ba'o le nu mi jmive
I am-dead [retrospective] the event-of I live.

I am dead in the aftermath of my living.


Here the (point-)event of my being dead is the portion of my living-process which occurs after the process is complete. Contrast Example 10.74 with:

Example 10.75. 

mi morsi ba le nu mi jmive
I am-dead [future] the event-of I live.

I am dead after my living.


As explained in Section 10.6 , Example 10.75 does not exclude the possibility that I died before I ceased to live!

Likewise, we might say:

Example 10.76. 

mi klama le zarci pu'o le nu mi citka
I go-to the store [prospective] the event-of I eat

which indicates that before my eating begins, I go to the store, whereas

Example 10.77. 

mi klama le zarci ba'o le nu mi citka
I go-to the store [retrospective] the event-of I eat

would indicate that I go to the store after I am finished eating.

Here is an example which mixes temporal ZAhO (as a tense) and spatial ZAhO (as a sumtcita):

Example 10.78. 

le bloti pu za'o xelklama
The boat [past] [superfective] is-a-transport-mechanism
fe'e ba'o le lalxu
[space] [retrospective] the lake.

The boat sailed for too long and beyond the lake.


Probably it sailed up onto the dock. One point of clarification: although xelklama appears to mean simply is-a-mode-of-transport , it does not – the bridi of Example 10.78 has four omitted arguments, and thus has the (physical) journey which goes on too long as part of its meaning.

The remaining tense cmavo, which have to do with interval size, dimension, and continuousness (or lack thereof) are interpreted to let the sumti specify the particular interval over which the main bridi operates:

Example 10.79. 

mi klama le zarci reroi le ca djedi
I go-to the market [twice] the [present] day.

I go/went/will go to the market twice today.


Be careful not to confuse a tense used as a sumtcita with a tense used within a seltcita sumti:

Example 10.80. 

loi snime cu carvi
Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains
ze'u le ca dunra
[long-time-interval] the [present] winter.

Snow falls during this winter.


claims that the interval specified by this winter is long, as events of snowfall go, whereas

Example 10.81. 

loi snime cu carvi ca le ze'u dunra
Some-of-the-mass-of snow rains [present] the [long-time] winter.

Snow falls in the long winter.


claims that during some part of the winter, which is long as winters go, snow falls.

10.13. Sticky and multiple tenses: KI

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ki

KI

sticky tense set/reset

So far we have only considered tenses in isolated bridi. Lojban provides several ways for a tense to continue in effect over more than a single bridi. This property is known as stickiness : the tense gets stuck and remains in effect until explicitly unstuck. In the metaphor of the imaginary journey, the place and time set by a sticky tense may be thought of as a campsite or way-station: it provides a permanent origin with respect to which other tenses are understood. Later imaginary journeys start from that point rather than from the speaker.

To make a tense sticky, suffix ki to it:

Example 10.82. 

mi puki klama le zarci
I [past-sticky] go-to the market.
.i le nanmu cu batci le gerku
The man bites the dog.

I went to the market. The man bit the dog.


Here the use of puki rather than just pu ensures that the tense will affect the next sentence as well. Otherwise, since the second sentence is tenseless, there would be no way of determining its tense; the event of the second sentence might happen before, after, or simultaneously with that of the first sentence.

(The last statement does not apply when the two sentences form part of a narrative. See Section 10.14 for an explanation of story time , which employs a different set of conventions.)

What if the second sentence has a tense anyway?

Example 10.83. 

mi puki klama le zarci
I [past-sticky] go-to the market.
.i le nanmu pu batci le gerku
The man [past] bites the dog.

Here the second pu does not replace the sticky tense, but adds to it, in the sense that the starting point of its imaginary journey is taken to be the previously set sticky time. So the translation of Example 10.83 is:

Example 10.84. 

I went to the market. The man had earlier bitten the dog.


and it is equivalent in meaning (when considered in isolation from any other sentences) to:

Example 10.85. 

mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go-to the market.
.i le nanmu pupu batci le gerku
The man [past-past] bites the dog.

The point has not been discussed so far, but it is perfectly grammatical to have more than one tense construct in a sentence:

Example 10.86. 

puku mi ba klama le zarci
[past] I [future] go-to the market.

Earlier, I was going to go to the market.


Here there are two tenses in the same bridi, the first floating free and specified by puku , the second in the usual place and specified by ba. They are considered cumulative in the same way as the two tenses in separate sentences of Example 10.85. Example 10.86 is therefore equivalent in meaning, except for emphasis, to:

Example 10.87. 

mi puba klama le zarci
I [past-future] go-to the market.

I was going to go to the market.


Compare Example 10.88 and Example 10.89 , which have a different meaning from Example 10.86 and Example 10.87 :

Example 10.88. 

mi ba klama le zarci puku
I [future] go-to the market [past].

I will have gone to the market earlier.


Example 10.89. 

mi bapu klama le zarci
I [future-past] go-to the market.

I will have gone to the market.


So when multiple tense constructs in a single bridi are involved, order counts – the tenses cannot be shifted around as freely as if there were only one tense to worry about.

But why bother to allow multiple tense constructs at all? They specify separate portions of the imaginary journey, and can be useful in order to make part of a tense sticky. Consider Example 10.90 , which adds a second bridi and a ki to Example 10.86 :

Example 10.90. 

pu ki ku mi ba klama le zarci
[past] [sticky] I [future] go-to the market.
.i le nanmu cu batci le gerku
The man bites the dog.

What is the implied tense of the second sentence? Not puba , but only pu , since only pu was made sticky with ki. So the translation is:

I was going to go to the market. The man bit the dog.

Lojban has several ways of embedding a bridi within another bridi: descriptions, abstractors, relative clauses. (Technically, descriptions contain selbri rather than bridi.) Any of the selbri of these subordinate bridi may have tenses attached. These tenses are interpreted relative to the tense of the main bridi:

Example 10.91. 

mi pu klama le ba'o zarci
I [past] go-to the [retrospective] market

I went to the former market.


The significance of the ba'o in Example 10.91 is that the speaker's destination is described as being in the aftermath of being a market ; that is, it is a market no longer. In particular, the time at which it was no longer a market is in the speaker's past, because the ba'o is interpreted relative to the pu tense of the main bridi.

Here is an example involving an abstraction bridi:

Example 10.92. 

mi ca jinvi le du'u mi ba morsi
I now opine the fact-that I will-be dead.

I now believe that I will be dead.


Here the event of being dead is said to be in the future with respect to the opinion, which is in the present.

ki may also be used as a tense by itself. This cancels all stickiness and returns the bridi and all following bridi to the speaker's location in both space and time.

In complex descriptions, multiple tenses may be saved and then used by adding a subscript to ki. A time made sticky with kixipa (ki-sub-1) can be returned to by specifying kixipa as a tense by itself. In the case of written expression, the writer's here-and-now is often different from the reader's, and a pair of subscripted ki tenses could be used to distinguish the two.

10.14. Story time

Making strict use of the conventions explained in Section 10.13 would be intolerably awkward when a story is being told. The time at which a story is told by the narrator is usually unimportant to the story. What matters is the flow of time within the story itself. The term story in this section refers to any series of statements related in more-or-less time-sequential order, not just a fictional one.

Lojban speakers use a different set of conventions, commonly called story time , for inferring tense within a story. It is presumed that the event described by each sentence takes place some time more or less after the previous ones. Therefore, tenseless sentences are implicitly tensed as what happens next. In particular, any sticky time setting is advanced by each sentence.

The following mini-story illustrates the important features of story time. A sentence-by-sentence explication follows:

Example 10.93. 

pu zu ki ku ne'i ki le kevna
[past] [long] [sticky] [,] [inside] [sticky] the cave,
le ninmu goi ko'a zutse le rokci
the woman defined-as she-1 sat-on the rock

Long ago, in a cave, a woman sat on a rock.


Example 10.94. 

.i ko'a citka loi kanba rectu
She-1 eat-(tenseless) some-of-the-mass-of goat flesh.

She was eating goat's meat.


Example 10.95. 

.i ko'a pu jukpa ri le mudyfagri
She [past] cook the-last-mentioned by-method-the wood-fire.

She had cooked the meat over a wood fire.


Example 10.96. 

.i lei rectu cu zanglare
The-mass-of flesh is-(favorable)-warm.

The meat was pleasantly warm.


Example 10.97. 

.i le labno goi ko'e
The wolf defined-as it-2
ba za ki nenri klama le kevna
[future] [medium] [sticky] within came to-the cave.

A while later, a wolf came into the cave.


Example 10.98. 

.i ko'e lebna lei rectu ko'a
It-2 takes-(tenseless) the-mass-of flesh from-her-1.

It took the meat from her.


Example 10.99. 

.i ko'e bartu klama
It-2 out ran

It ran out.


Example 10.93 sets both the time (long ago) and the place (in a cave) using ki , just like the sentence sequences in Section 10.13. No further space cmavo are used in the rest of the story, so the place is assumed to remain unchanged. The English translation of Example 10.93 is marked for past tense also, as the conventions of English storytelling require: consequently, all other English translation sentences are also in the past tense. (We don't notice how strange this is; even stories about the future are written in past tense!) This conventional use of past tense is not used in Lojban narratives.

Example 10.94 is tenseless. Outside story time, it would be assumed that its event happens simultaneously with that of Example 10.93 , since a sticky tense is in effect; the rules of story time, however, imply that the event occurs afterwards, and that the story time has advanced (changing the sticky time set in Example 10.93).

Example 10.95 has an explicit tense. This is taken relative to the latest setting of the sticky time; therefore, the event of Example 10.95 happens before that of Example 10.94. It cannot be determined if Example 10.95 happens before or after Example 10.93.

Example 10.96 is again tenseless. Story time was not changed by the flashback in Example 10.95 , so Example 10.96 happens after Example 10.94.

Example 10.97 specifies the future (relative to Example 10.96) and makes it sticky. So all further events happen after Example 10.97.

Example 10.98 and Example 10.99 are again tenseless, and so happen after Example 10.97. (Story time is changed.)

So the overall order is Example 10.93 - Example 10.95 - Example 10.94 - Example 10.96 - (medium interval) - Example 10.97 - Example 10.98 - Example 10.99. It is also possible that Example 10.95 happens before Example 10.93.

If no sticky time (or space) is set initially, the story is set at an unspecified time (or space): the effect is like that of choosing an arbitrary reference point and making it sticky. This style is common in stories that are jokes. The same convention may be used if the context specifies the sticky time sufficiently.

10.15. Tenses in subordinate bridi

English has a set of rules, formally known as sequence of tense rules , for determining what tense should be used in a subordinate clause, depending on the tense used in the main sentence. Here are some examples:

Example 10.100. 

John says that George is going to the market.


Example 10.101. 

John says that George went to the market.


Example 10.102. 

John said that George went to the market.


Example 10.103. 

John said that George had gone to the market.


In Example 10.100 and Example 10.101 , the tense of the main sentence is the present: says. If George goes when John speaks, we get the present tense is going ( goes would be unidiomatic); if George goes before John speaks, we get the past tense went. But if the tense of the main sentence is the past, with said , then the tense required in the subordinate clause is different. If George goes when John speaks, we get the past tense went ; if George goes before John speaks, we get the past-perfect tense had gone.

The rule of English, therefore, is that both the tense of the main sentence and the tense of the subordinate clause are understood relative to the speaker of the main sentence (not John, but the person who speaks Example 10.100 through Example 10.103).

Lojban, like Russian and Esperanto, uses a different convention. A tense in a subordinate bridi is understood to be relative to the tense already set in the main bridi. Thus Example 10.100 through Example 10.103 can be expressed in Lojban respectively thus:

Example 10.104. 

la .djan. ca cusku le se du'u
John [present] says the statement-that
la .djordj. ca klama le zarci
That-named George [present] goes-to the market.

Example 10.105. 

la .djan. ca cusku le se du'u
That-named John [present] says the statement-that
la .djordj. pu klama le zarci
That-named George [past] goes-to the market.

Example 10.106. 

la .djan. pu cusku le se du'u
That-named John [past] says the statement-that
la .djordj. ca klama le zarci
That-named George [present] goes-to the market.

Example 10.107. 

la .djan. pu cusku le se du'u
That-named John [past] says the statement-that
la .djordj. pu klama le zarci
That-named George [past] goes-to the market.

Probably the most counterintuitive of the Lojban examples is Example 10.106. The ca looks quite odd, as if George were going to the market right now, rather than back when John spoke. But this ca is really a ca with respect to a reference point specified by the outer pu. This behavior is the same as the additive behavior of multiple tenses in the same bridi, as explained in Section 10.13.

There is a special cmavo nau (of selma'o CUhE) which can be used to override these rules and get to the speaker's current reference point. (Yes, it sounds like English now.) It is not grammatical to combine nau with any other cmavo in a tense, except by way of a logical or non-logical connection (see Section 10.20). Here is a convoluted sentence with several nested bridi which uses nau at the lowest level:

Example 10.108. 

la .djan. pu cusku le se du'u
That-named John [past] says the statement-that
la .alis pu cusku le se du'u
That-named Alice [past] says the statement-that
la .djordj. pu cusku le se du'u
That-named George [past] says the statement-that
la .maris. nau klama le zarci
That-named Mary [now] goes-to the market.

John said that Alice had said that George had earlier said that Mary is now going to the market.


The use of nau does not affect sticky tenses.

10.16. Tense relations between sentences

The sumtcita method, explained in Section 10.12 , of asserting a tense relationship between two events suffers from asymmetry. Specifically,

Example 10.109. 

le verba cu cadzu le bisli
The child walks-on the ice
zu'a le nu le nanmu cu batci le gerku
[left] the event-of the man bites the dog.

The child walks on the ice to the left of where the man bites the dog.


which specifies an imaginary journey leftward from the man biting the dog to the child walking on the ice, claims only that the child walks on the ice. By the nature of le nu , the man's biting the dog is merely referred to without being claimed. If it seems desirable to claim both, each event can be expressed as a main sentence bridi, with a special form of .i connecting them:

Example 10.110. 

le nanmu cu batci le gerku
The man bites the dog.
.izu'abo le verba cu cadzu le bisli
[Left] the child walks-on the ice.

The man bites the dog. To the left, the child walks on the ice.


.izu'abo is a compound cmavo: the .i separates the sentences and the zu'a is the tense. The bo is required to prevent the zu'a from gobbling up the following sumti, namely le verba.

Note that the bridi in Example 10.110 appear in the reverse order from their appearance in Example 10.109. With .izu'abo (and all other afterthought tense connectives) the sentence specifying the origin of the journey comes first. This is a natural order for sentences, but requires some care when converting between this form and the sumtcita form.

Example 10.110 means the same thing as:

Example 10.111. 

le nanmu cu batci le gerku .i zu'a la'edi'u
The man bites the dog. [Left] the-referent-of-the-last-sentence
le verba cu cadzu le bisli
the child walks-on the ice.

The man bites the dog. Left of what I just mentioned, the child walks on the ice.


If the bo is omitted in Example 10.110 , the meaning changes:

Example 10.112. 

le nanmu cu batci le gerku
The man bites the dog.
.i zu'a le verba cu cadzu le bisli
[Left] the child [something] walks-on the ice.

The man bites the dog. To the left of the child, something walks on the ice.


Here the first place of the second sentence is unspecified, because zu'a has absorbed the sumti le verba.

Do not confuse either Example 10.110 or Example 10.112 with the following:

Example 10.113. 

le nanmu cu batci le gerku
The man bites the dog.
.i zu'aku le verba cu cadzu le bisli
[Left] the child walks-on the ice.

The man bites the dog. Left of me, the child walks on the ice.


In Example 10.113 , the origin point is the speaker, as is usual with zu'aku. Example 10.110 makes the origin point of the tense the event described by the first sentence.

Two sentences may also be connected in forethought by a tense relationship. Just like afterthought tense connection, forethought tense connection claims both sentences, and in addition claims that the time or space relationship specified by the tense holds between the events the two sentences describe.

The origin sentence is placed first, preceded by a tense plus gi. Another gi is used to separate the sentences:

Example 10.114. 

pugi mi klama le zarci gi mi klama le zdani
[past] I go-to the market [,] I go-to the house.

Before I go to the market, I go to the house.


A parallel construction can be used to express a tense relationship between sumti:

Example 10.115. 

mi klama pugi le zarci gi le zdani
I go-to [past] the market [,] the house.

Because English does not have any direct way of expressing a tense-like relationship between nouns, Example 10.115 cannot be expressed in English without paraphrasing it either into Example 10.114 or else into I go to the house before the market , which is ambiguous – is the market going?

Finally, a third forethought construction expresses a tense relationship between bridi-tails rather than whole bridi. (The construct known as a bridi-tail is explained fully in Section 14.9 ; roughly speaking, it is a selbri, possibly with following sumti.) Example 10.116 is equivalent in meaning to Example 10.114 and Example 10.115 :

Example 10.116. 

mi pugi klama le zarci gi klama le zdani
I [past] go-to the market [,] go-to the house.

I, before going to the market, go to the house.


In both Example 10.115 and Example 10.116 , the underlying sentences mi klama le zarci and mi klama le zdani are not claimed; only the relationship in time between them is claimed.

Both the forethought and the afterthought forms are appropriate with PU, ZI, FAhA, VA, and ZAhO tenses. In all cases, the equivalent forms are (where X and Y stand for sentences, and TENSE for a tense cmavo):

subordinate X TENSE le nu Y
afterthought coordinate Y .i+TENSE+bo X
forethought coordinate TENSE+gi Y gi X

10.17. Tensed logical connectives

The Lojban tense system interacts with the Lojban logical connective system. That system is a separate topic, explained in Chapter 14 and touched on only in summary here. By the rules of the logical connective system, Example 10.117 through Example 10.119 are equivalent in meaning:

Example 10.117. 

la .teris. satre le mlatu .ije la .teris. satre le ractu

Terry strokes the cat. And Terry strokes the rabbit.


Example 10.118. 

la .teris. satre le mlatu gi'e satre le ractu

Terry strokes the cat and strokes the rabbit.


Example 10.119. 

la .teris. satre le mlatu .e le ractu

Terry strokes the cat and the rabbit.


Suppose we wish to add a tense relationship to the logical connective and ? To say that Terry strokes the cat and later strokes the rabbit, we can combine a logical connective with a tense connective by placing the logical connective first, then the tense, and then the cmavo bo , thus:

Example 10.120. 

la .teris. satre le mlatu .ijebabo la .teris. satre le ractu

Terry strokes the cat. And then Terry strokes the rabbit.


Example 10.121. 

la .teris. satre le mlatu gi'ebabo satre le ractu

Terry strokes the cat, and then strokes the rabbit.


Example 10.122. 

la .teris. satre le mlatu .ebabo le ractu

Terry strokes the cat and then the rabbit.


Example 10.120 through Example 10.122 are equivalent in meaning. They are also analogous to Example 10.117 through Example 10.119 respectively. The bo is required for the same reason as in Example 10.110 : to prevent the ba from functioning as a sumtcita for the following sumti (or, in Example 10.121 , from being attached to the following selbri).

In addition to the bo construction of Example 10.120 through Example 10.122 , there is also a form of tensed logical connective with keke'e ( tu'etu'u for sentences). The logical connective system makes Example 10.123 through Example 10.125 equivalent in meaning:

Example 10.123. 

mi bevri le dakli .ije tu'e mi bevri le gerku
I carry the sack. And ( I carry the dog.
.ija mi bevri le mlatu tu'u
And/or I carry the cat ).

I carry the sack. And I carry the dog, or I carry the cat, or I carry both.


Example 10.124. 

mi bevri le dakli gi'eke bevri le gerku gi'a bevri
I carry the sack and (carry the dog and/or carry
le mlatu
the cat).

I carry the sack, and also carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both.


Example 10.125. 

mi bevri le dakli .eke le gerku .a le mlatu
I carry the sack and (the dog or the cat).

I carry the sack and also the dog or the cat or both.


Note the uniformity of the Lojban, as contrasted with the variety of ways in which the English provides for the correct grouping. In all cases, the meaning is that I carry the sack in any case, and either the cat or the dog or both.

To express that I carry the sack first (earlier in time), and then the dog or the cat or both simultaneously, I can insert tenses to form Example 10.126 through Example 10.128 :

Example 10.126. 

mi bevri le dakli .ije ba tu'e mi bevri le gerku
I carry the sack. And [future] ( I carry the dog.
.ija cabo mi bevri le mlatu tu'u
And/or [present] I carry the cat. )

I carry the sack. And then I will carry the dog or I will carry the cat or I will carry both at once.


Example 10.127. 

mi bevri le dakli gi'e bake bevri le gerku
I carry the sack and [future] (carry the dog
gi'a cabo bevri le mlatu
and/or [present] carry the cat).

I carry the sack and then will carry the dog or carry the cat or carry both at once.


Example 10.128. 

mi bevri le dakli .e bake le gerku
I carry the sack and [future] (the dog
.a cabo le mlatu
and/or [present] the cat).

I carry the sack, and then the dog or the cat or both at once.


Example 10.126 through Example 10.128 are equivalent in meaning to each other, and correspond to the tenseless Example 10.123 through Example 10.125 respectively.

10.18. Tense negation

Any bridi which involves tenses of selma'o PU, FAhA, or ZAhO can be contradicted by a -nai suffixed to the tense cmavo. Some examples:

Example 10.129. 

mi punai klama le zarci
I [past-not] go-to the market.

I didn't go to the market.


As a contradictory negation, Example 10.129 implies that the bridi as a whole is false without saying anything about what is true. When the negated tense is a sumtcita, -nai negation indicates that the stated relationship does not hold:

Example 10.130. 

mi klama le zarci ca nai
I go-to the market [present] [not]
le nu do klama le zdani
the event-of you go-to the house.

It is not true that I went to the market at the same time that you went to the house.


Example 10.131. 

le nanmu cu batci le gerku ne'inai le kumfa
The man   bites the dog [within-not] the room.

The man didn't bite the dog inside the room.


Example 10.132. 

mi morsi ca'onai le nu mi jmive
I am-dead [continuitive-negated] the event-of I live.

It is false that I am dead during my life.


It is also possible to perform scalar negation of whole tense constructs by placing a member of NAhE before them. Unlike contradictory negation, scalar negation asserts a truth: that the bridi is true with some tense other than that specified. The following examples are scalar negation analogues of Example 10.129 to Example 10.131 :

Example 10.133. 

mi na'e pu klama le zarci
I [non-] [past] go-to the market.

I go to the market other than in the past.


Example 10.134. 

le nanmu cu batci le gerku to'e ne'i le kumfa
The man   bites the dog [opposite-of] [within] the room.

The man bites the dog outside the room.


Example 10.135. 

mi klama le zarci na'e ca le nu
I go-to the market [non-] [present] the event-of
do klama le zdani
you go-to the house.

I went to the market at a time other than the time at which you went to the house.


Example 10.136. 

mi morsi na'e ca'o le nu mi jmive
I am-dead [non-] [continuitive] the event-of I live.

I am dead other than during my life.


An example of scalar negation of FAhA:

Example 10.137. 

le verba na'e ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [non-] [right] walks-on the ice

The child walks on the ice other than to my right.


The use of -nai on cmavo of TAhE and ROI has already been discussed in Section 10.9 ; this use is also a scalar negation.

10.19. Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ca'a

CAhA

actually is

ka'e

CAhA

is innately capable of

nu'o

CAhA

can but has not

pu'i

CAhA

can and has

Lojban bridi without tense markers may not necessarily refer to actual events: they may also refer to capabilities or potential events. For example:

Example 10.138. 

ro datka cu flulimna
All ducks are-float-swimmers.

All ducks swim by floating.


is a Lojban truth, even though the colloquial English translation is false or at best ambiguous. This is because the tenseless Lojban bridi doesn't necessarily claim that every duck is swimming or floating now or even at a specific time or place. Even if we add a tense marker to Example 10.138 ,

Example 10.139. 

ro datka ca flulimna
All ducks [present] are-float-swimmers.

All ducks are now swimming by floating.


the resulting Example 10.139 might still be considered a truth, even though the colloquial English seems even more likely to be false. All ducks have the potential of swimming even if they are not exercising that potential at present. To get the full flavor of All ducks are now swimming , we must append a marker from selma'o CAhA to the tense, and say:

Example 10.140. 

ro datka ca ca'a flulimna
All ducks [present] [actual] are-float-swimmers.

All ducks are now actually swimming by floating.


A CAhA cmavo is always placed after any other tense cmavo, whether for time or for space. However, a CAhA cmavo comes before ki , so that a CAhA condition can be made sticky.

Example 10.140 is false in both Lojban and English, since it claims that the swimming is an actual, present fact, true of every duck that exists, whereas in fact there is at least one duck that is not swimming now.

Furthermore, some ducks are dead (and therefore sink); some ducks have just hatched (and do not know how to swim yet), and some ducks have been eaten by predators (and have ceased to exist as separate objects at all). Nevertheless, all these ducks have the innate capability of swimming – it is part of the nature of duckhood. The cmavo ka'e expresses this notion of innate capability:

Example 10.141. 

ro datka ka'e flulimna
All ducks [capable] are-float-swimmers.

All ducks are innately capable of swimming.


Under some epistemologies, innate capability can be extended in order to apply the innate properties of a mass to which certain individuals belong to the individuals themselves, even if those individuals are themselves not capable of fulfilling the claim of the bridi. For example:

Example 10.142. 

la .djan. ka'e viska
That-named John [capable] sees.

John is innately capable of seeing.

John can see.


might be true about a human being named John, even though he has been blind since birth, because the ability to see is innately built into his nature as a human being. It is theoretically possible that conditions might occur that would enable John to see (a great medical discovery, for example). On the other hand,

Example 10.143. 

le cukta ka'e viska
The book [capable] sees.

The book can see.


is not true in most epistemologies, since the ability to see is not part of the innate nature of a book.

Consider once again the newly hatched ducks mentioned earlier. They have the potential of swimming, but have not yet demonstrated that potential. This may be expressed using nu'o , the cmavo of CAhA for undemonstrated potential:

Example 10.144. 

ro cifydatka nu'o flulimna
All infant-ducks [can-but-has-not] are-float-swimmers.

All infant ducks have an undemonstrated potential for swimming by floating.

Baby ducks can swim but haven't yet.


Contrariwise, if Frank is not blind from birth, then pu'i is appropriate:

Example 10.145. 

la .frank. pu'i viska
That-named Frank [can-and-has] sees.

Frank has demonstrated a potential for seeing.

Frank can see and has seen.


Note that the glosses given at the beginning of this section for ca'a , nu'o , and pu'i incorporate ca into their meaning, and are really correct for ca ca'a , ca nu'o , and ca pu'i. However, the CAhA cmavo are perfectly meaningful with other tenses than the present:

Example 10.146. 

mi pu ca'a klama le zarci
I [past] [actual] go-to the store.

I actually went to the store.


Example 10.147. 

la .frank. ba nu'o klama le zdani
That-named Frank [future] [can-but-has-not] goes-to the store.

Frank could have, but will not have, gone to the store (at some understood moment in the future).


As always in Lojban tenses, a missing CAhA can have an indeterminate meaning, or the context can be enough to disambiguate it. Saying

Example 10.148. 

ta jelca
That burns/is-burning/might-burn/will-burn.

with no CAhA specified can translate the two very different English sentences That is on fire and That is inflammable. The first demands immediate action (usually), whereas the second merely demands caution. The two cases can be disambiguated with:

Example 10.149. 

ta ca ca'a jelca
That [present] [actual] burns.

That is on fire.


and

Example 10.150. 

ta ka'e jelca
That [capable] burns.

That is capable of burning.

That is inflammable.


When no indication is given, as in the simple observative

Example 10.151. 

jelca

It burns!


the prudent Lojbanist will assume the meaning Fire!

10.20. Logical and non-logical connections between tenses

Like many things in Lojban, tenses may be logically connected; logical connection is explained in more detail in Chapter 14. Some of the terminology in this section will be clear only if you already understand logical connectives.

The appropriate logical connectives belong to selma'o JA. A logical connective between tenses can always be expanded to one between sentences:

Example 10.152. 

mi pu je ba klama le zarci
I [past] and [future] go-to the market.

I went and will go to the market.


means the same as:

Example 10.153. 

mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go-to the market.
.ije mi ba klama le zarci
And I [future] go-to the market.

I went to the market, and I will go to the market.


Tense connection and tense negation are combined in:

Example 10.154. 

mi punai je canai je ba klama le zarci
I [past-not] and [present-not] and [future] go-to the market.

I haven't yet gone to the market, but I will in future.


Example 10.154 is far more specific than

Example 10.155. 

mi ba klama le zarci
I [future] go-to the market.

which only says that I will go, without claiming anything about my past or present. ba does not imply punai or canai ; to compel that interpretation, either a logical connection or a ZAhO is needed.

Tense negation can often be removed in favor of negation in the logical connective itself. The following examples are equivalent in meaning:

Example 10.156. 

mi mo'izu'anai je mo'iri'u cadzu
I [motion-left-not] and [motion-right] walk.

I walk not leftward but rightward.


Example 10.157. 

mi mo'izu'a naje mo'iri'u cadzu
I [motion-left] not-and [motion-right] walk.

I walk not leftward but rightward.


There are no forethought logical connections between tenses allowed by the grammar, to keep tenses simpler. Nor is there any way to override simple left-grouping of the connectives, the Lojban default.

The non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI, BIhI, and GAhO are also permitted between tenses. One application is to specify intervals not by size, but by their end-points ( bi'o belongs to selma'o BIhI, and connects the end-points of an ordered interval, like English from ... to):

Example 10.158. 

mi puza bi'o bazu vasxu
I [past-medium] from…to [future-long] breathe.

I breathe from a medium time ago till a long time to come.


(It is to be hoped that I have a long life ahead of me.)

One additional use of non-logical connectives within tenses is discussed in Section 10.21. Other uses will probably be identified in future.

10.21. Sub-events

Another application of non-logical tense connection is to talk about sub-events of events. Consider a six-shooter: a gun which can fire six bullets in succession before reloading. If I fire off the entire magazine twice, I can express the fact in Lojban thus:

Example 10.159. 

mi reroi pi'u xaroi celgau
I [twice] [cross-product] [six-times] shoot
le seldanti
the projectile-launcher.

On two occasions, I fire the gun six times.


It would be confusing, though grammatical, to run the reroi and the xaroi directly together. However, the non-logical connective pi'u expresses a Cartesian product (also known as a cross product) of two sets. In this case, there is a set of two firings each of which is represented by a set of six shots, for twelve shots in all (hence the name product : the product of 2 and 6 is 12). Its use specifies very precisely what occurs.

In fact, you can specify strings of interval properties and event contours within a single tense without the use of a logical or non-logical connective cmavo. This allows tenses of the type:

Example 10.160. 

la .djordj. ca'o co'a ciska
That-named George [continuitive] [initiative] writes.

George continues to start to write.


Example 10.161. 

mi reroi ca'o xaroi darxi le damri
I [twice] [continuitive] [six-times] hit the drum.

On two occasions, I continue to beat the drum six times.


10.22. Conversion of sumtcita: JAI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jai

JAI

tense conversion

fai

FA

indefinite place

Conversion is the regular Lojban process of moving around the places of a place structure. The cmavo of selma'o SE serve this purpose, exchanging the first place with one of the others:

Example 10.162. 

mi cu klama le zarci
I go-to the market.

Example 10.163. 

le zarci cu se klama mi
The market is-gone-to by-me.

It is also possible to bring a place that is specified by a sumtcita (for the purposes of this chapter, a tense sumtcita) to the front, by using jai plus the tense as the grammatical equivalent of SE:

Example 10.164. 

le ratcu cu citka le cirla vi le panka
The rat eats the cheese [short-distance] the park.

The rat eats the cheese in the park.


Example 10.165. 

le panka cu jai vi citka le cirla fai le ratcu
The park is-the-place-of eating the cheese by the rat.

The park is where the rat eats the cheese.


In Example 10.165 , the construction JAI+tense converts the location sumti into the first place. The previous first place has nowhere to go, since the location sumti is not a numbered place; however, it can be inserted back into the bridi with fai , the indefinite member of selma'o FA.

(The other members of FA are used to mark the first, second, etc. places of a bridi explicitly:

Example 10.166. 

fa mi cu klama fe le zarci


means the same as

Example 10.167. 

fe le zarci cu klama fa mi


as well as the simple

Example 10.168. 

mi cu klama le zarci


in which the place structure is determined by position.)

Like SE conversion, JAI+tense conversion is especially useful in descriptions with LE selma'o:

Example 10.169. 

mi viska le jai vi citka be le cirla
I saw the place-of eating the cheese.

Here the eater of the cheese is elided, so no fai appears.

Of course, temporal tenses are also usable with JAI:

Example 10.170. 

mi djuno fi le jai ca morsi be fai la .djan.
I know about the [present] is-dead of that-named John .

I know the time of John's death.

I know when John died.


10.23. Tenses versus modals

Grammatically, every use of tenses seen so far is exactly paralleled by some use of modals as explained in Chapter 9. Modals and tenses alike can be followed by sumti, can appear before the selbri, can be used in pure and mixed connections, can participate in JAI conversions. The parallelism is perfect. However, there is a deep difference in the semantics of tense constructs and modal constructs, grounded in historical differences between the two forms. Originally, modals and tenses were utterly different things in earlier versions of Loglan; only in Lojban have they become grammatically interchangeable. And even now, differences in semantics continue to be maintained.

The core distinction is that whereas the modal bridi

Example 10.171. 

mi nelci do mu'i le nu do nelci mi
I like you with-motivation the event-of you like me.

I like you because you like me.


places the le nu sumti in the x1 place of the gismu mukti (which underlies the modal mu'i), namely the motivating event, the tensed bridi

Example 10.172. 

mi nelci do ba le nu do nelci mi
I like you after the event-of you like me.

I like you after you like me.


places the le nu sumti in the x2 place of the gismu balvi (which underlies the tense ba), namely the point of reference for the future tense. Paraphrases of Example 10.171 and Example 10.172 , employing the brivla mukti and balvi explicitly, would be:

Example 10.173. 

le nu do nelci mi cu mukti le nu
The event-of you like me motivates the event-of
mi nelci do
I like you.

Your liking me is the motive for my liking you.


and

Example 10.174. 

le nu mi nelci do cu balvi le nu
The event-of I like you is-after the event-of
do nelci mi
you like me.

My liking you follows (in time) your liking me.


(Note that the paraphrase is not perfect due to the difference in what is claimed; Example 10.173 and Example 10.174 claim only the causal and temporal relationships between the events, not the existence of the events themselves.)

As a result, the afterthought sentence-connective forms of Example 10.171 and Example 10.172 are, respectively:

Example 10.175. 

mi nelci do .imu'ibo do nelci mi
I like you. [That-is] Because you like me.

Example 10.176. 

do nelci mi .ibabo mi nelci do
You like me. Afterward, I like you.

In Example 10.175 , the order of the two bridi mi nelci do and do nelci mi is the same as in Example 10.171. In Example 10.176 , however, the order is reversed: the origin point do nelci mi physically appears before the future-time event mi nelci do. In both cases, the bridi characterizing the event in the x2 place appears before the bridi characterizing the event in the x1 place of mukti or balvi.

In forethought connections, however, the asymmetry between modals and tenses is not found. The forethought equivalents of Example 10.175 and Example 10.176 are

Example 10.177. 

mu'igi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do
Because you like me , I like you.

and

Example 10.178. 

bagi do nelci mi gi mi nelci do
After you like me , I like you.

respectively.

The following modal sentence schemata (where X and Y represent sentences) all have the same meaning:

X .i BAI bo Y
BAI gi Y gi X
X BAI le nu Y

whereas the following tensed sentence schemata also have the same meaning:

X .i TENSE bo Y
TENSE gi X gi Y
Y TENSE le nu X

neglecting the question of what is claimed. In the modal sentence schemata, the modal tag is always followed by Y, the sentence representing the event in the x1 place of the gismu that underlies the BAI. In the tensed sentences, no such simple rule exists.

10.24. Tense questions: cu'e

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

cu'e

CUhE

tense question

There are two main ways to ask questions about tense. The main English tense question words are When? and Where?. These may be paraphrased respectively as At what time? and At what place? In these forms, their Lojban equivalents simply involve a tense plus ma , the Lojban sumti question:

Example 10.179. 

do klama le zdani ca ma
You go-to the house [present] [what-sumti?].
You go-to the house at what-time?

When do you go to the house?


Example 10.180. 

le verba vi ma pu cadzu le bisli
The child [short-space] [what-sumti?] [past] walks-on the ice.
The child at/near what-place walked-on the ice?

Where did the child walk on the ice?


There is also a non-specific tense and modal question, cu'e , belonging to selma'o CUhE. This can be used wherever a tense or modal construct can be used.

Example 10.181. 

le nanmu cu'e batci le gerku
The man [what-tense?] bites the dog.

When/Where/How does the man bite the dog?


Possible answers to Example 10.181 might be:

Example 10.182. 

va
[medium-space].

Some ways from here.


Example 10.183. 

puzu
[past]-[long-time].

A long time ago.


Example 10.184. 

vi le lunra
[short-space] The moon.

On the moon.


Example 10.185. 

pu'o
[prospective]

He hasn't yet done so.


or even the modal reply (from selma'o BAI; see Section 9.6):

Example 10.186. 

seka'a le briju
With-destination the office.

The only way to combine cu'e with other tense cmavo is through logical connection, which makes a question that pre-specifies some information:

Example 10.187. 

do puzi je cu'e sombo le gurni
You [past-short] and [when?] sow the grain?

You sowed the grain a little while ago; when else do you sow it?


Additionally, the logical connective itself can be replaced by a question word:

Example 10.188. 

la .artr. pu je'i ba nolraitru
That-named Arthur [past] [which?] [future] is-a-king

Was Arthur a king or will he be?


Answers to Example 10.188 would be logical connectives such as je , meaning both , naje meaning the latter , or jenai meaning the former.

10.25. Explicit magnitudes

It is a limitation of the VA and ZI system of specifying magnitudes that they can only prescribe vague magnitudes: small, medium, or large. In order to express both an origin point and an exact distance, the Lojban construction called a termset is employed. (Termsets are explained further in Section 14.11 and Section 16.7.) It is grammatical for a termset to be placed after a tense or modal tag rather than a sumti, which allows both the origin of the imaginary journey and its distance to be specified. Here is an example:

Example 10.189. 

la .frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la .djordj.
That-named Frank stands [left] [start-termset] George
la'u lo mitre be li mu [nu'u]
[quantity] a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5 [end-termset].

Frank is standing five meters to the left of George.


Here the termset extends from the nu'i to the implicit nu'u at the end of the sentence, and includes the terms la .djordj. , which is the unmarked origin point, and the tagged sumti lo mitre be li mu , which the cmavo la'u (of selma'o BAI, and meaning with quantity ; see Section 9.6) marks as a quantity. Both terms are governed by the tag zu'a

It is not necessary to have both an origin point and an explicit magnitude: a termset may have only a single term in it. A less precise version of Example 10.189 is:

Example 10.190. 

la .frank. sanli zu'a nu'i la'u
That-named Frank stands [left] [termset] [quantity]
lo mitre be li mu
a thing-measuring-in-meters the-number 5.

Frank stands five meters to the left.


10.26. Finally (an exercise for the much-tried reader)

Example 10.191. 

.a'o do pu seju ba roroi ca'o fe'e su'oroi jimpe fi le lojbo temci selsku ciste


10.27.  Summary of tense selma'o

PU

temporal direction

pu

past

ca

present

ba

future

ZI

temporal distance

zi

short

za

medium

zu

long

ZEhA

temporal interval

ze'i

short

ze'a

medium

ze'u

long

ze'e

infinite

ROI

objective quantified tense flag

noroi

never

paroi

once

[N]roi

[N] times

roroi

always

pare'u

the first time

rere'u

the second time

[N]re'u

the [N]th time

TAhE

subjective quantified tense

di'i

regularly

na'o

typically

ru'i

continuously

ta'e

habitually

ZAhO

event contours

see Section 10.10

FAhA

spatial direction

see Section 10.28

VA

spatial distance

vi

short

va

medium

vu

long

VEhA

spatial interval

ve'i

short

ve'a

medium

ve'u

long

ve'e

infinite

VIhA

spatial dimensionality

vi'i

line

vi'a

plane

vi'u

space

vi'e

space-time

FEhE

spatial interval modifier flag

fe'enoroi

nowhere

fe'eroroi

everywhere

fe'eba'o

beyond

etc.

MOhI

spatial movement flag

mo'i

motion

see Section 10.28

KI

set or reset sticky tense

tense+ ki

set

ki alone

reset

CUhE

tense question, reference point

cu'e

asks for a tense or aspect

nau

use speaker's reference point

JAI

tense conversion

jaica

the time of

jaivi

the place of

etc.

10.28. List of spatial directions and direction-like relations

The following list of FAhA cmavo gives rough English glosses for the cmavo, first when used without mo'i to express a direction, and then when used with mo'i to express movement in the direction. When possible, the gismu from which the cmavo is derived is also listed.

bu'u

coincident with ; at the same place as

ca'u

crane

in front (of)

forward

ti'a

trixe

behind

backward

zu'a

zunle

on the left (of)

leftward

ri'u

pritu

on the right (of)

rightward

ga'u

gapru

above

upward(ly)

ni'a

cnita

below

downward(ly)

ne'i

nenri

within

into

ru'u

sruri

surrounding

orbiting

pa'o

pagre

transfixing

passing through

ne'a

next to

moving while next to

te'e

bordering

moving along the border (of)

re'o

adjacent (to)

along

fa'a

farna

towards

arriving at

to'o

away from

departing from

zo'i

inward (from)

approaching

ze'o

outward (from)

receding from

zo'a

tangential (to)

passing (by)

be'a

berti

north (of)

northward(ly)

ne'u

snanu

south (of)

southward(ly)

du'a

stuna

east (of)

eastward(ly)

vu'a

west (of)

westward(ly)

Special note on fa'a , to'o , zo'i , and ze'o :

zo'i and ze'o refer to direction towards or away from the speaker's location, or whatever the origin is.

fa'a and to'o refer to direction towards or away from some other point.

Chapter 11. Events, qualities, quantities, and other vague words: on Lojban abstraction

The picture for chapter 11

11.1. The syntax of abstraction

The purpose of the feature of Lojban known as abstraction is to provide a means for taking whole bridi and packaging them up, as it were, into simple selbri. Syntactically, abstractions are very simple and uniform; semantically, they are rich and complex, with few features in common between one variety of abstraction and another. We will begin by discussing syntax without regard to semantics; as a result, the notion of abstraction may seem unmotivated at first. Bear with this difficulty until Section 11.2.

An abstraction selbri is formed by taking a full bridi and preceding it by any cmavo of selma'o NU. There are twelve such cmavo; they are known as abstractors. The bridi is closed by the elidable terminator kei , of selma'o KEI. Thus, to change the bridi

Example 11.1. 

mi klama le zarci
I go-to the store

into an abstraction using nu , one of the members of selma'o NU, we change it into

Example 11.2. 

nu mi klama le zarci [kei]
an-event-of my going-to the store

The bridi may be a simple selbri, or it may have associated sumti, as here. It is important to beware of eliding kei improperly, as many of the common uses of abstraction selbri involve following them with words that would appear to be part of the abstraction if kei had been elided.

(Technically, kei is never necessary, because the elidable terminator vau that closes every bridi can substitute for it; however, kei is specific to abstractions, and using it is almost always clearer.)

The grammatical uses of an abstraction selbri are exactly the same as those of a simple brivla. In particular, abstraction selbri may be used as observatives, as in Example 11.2 , or used in tanru:

Example 11.3. 

la .djan. cu nu sonci kei   djica
That-named John is-an (event-of being-a-soldier ) type-of desirer.

John wants to be a soldier.


Abstraction selbri may also be used in descriptions, preceded by le (or any other member of selma'o LE):

Example 11.4. 

la .djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]
That-named John   desires the event-of being-a-soldier.

We will most often use descriptions containing abstraction either at the end of a bridi, or just before the main selbri with its cu ; in either of these circumstances, kei can normally be elided.

The place structure of an abstraction selbri depends on the particular abstractor, and will be explained individually in the following sections.

Note: In glosses of bridi within abstractions, the grammatical form used in the English changes. Thus, in the gloss of Example 11.2 we see my going-to the store rather than I go-to the store ; likewise, in the glosses of Example 11.3 and Example 11.4 we see being-a-soldier rather than is-a-soldier. This procedure reflects the desire for more understandable glosses, and does not indicate any change in the Lojban form. A bridi is a bridi, and undergoes no change when it is used as part of an abstraction selbri.

11.2. Event abstraction

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

nu

NU

event abstractor

The examples in Section 11.1 made use of nu as the abstractor, and it is certainly the most common abstractor in Lojban text. Its purpose is to capture the event or state of the bridi considered as a whole. Do not confuse the le description built on a nu abstraction with ordinary descriptions based on le alone. The following sumti are quite distinct:

Example 11.5. 

le klama

the comer, that which comes


Example 11.6. 

le se klama

the destination


Example 11.7. 

le te klama

the origin


Example 11.8. 

le ve klama

the route


Example 11.9. 

le xe klama

the means of transportation


Example 11.10. 

le nu klama

the event of someone coming to somewhere from somewhere by some route using some means


Example 11.5 through Example 11.9 are descriptions that isolate the five individual sumti places of the selbri klama. Example 11.10 describes something associated with the bridi as a whole: the event of it.

In Lojban, the term event is divorced from its ordinary English sense of something that happens over a short period of time. The description:

Example 11.11. 

le nu mi vasxu
the event-of my breathing

is an event which lasts for the whole of my life (under normal circumstances). On the other hand,

Example 11.12. 

le nu la .djan. cinba la .djein.
the event-of that-named John kissing that-named Jane

is relatively brief by comparison (again, under normal circumstances).

We can see from Example 11.10 through Example 11.12 that ellipsis of sumti is valid in the bridi of abstraction selbri, just as in the main bridi of a sentence. Any sumti may be ellipsized if the listener will be able to figure out from context what the proper value of it is, or else to recognize that the proper value is unimportant. It is extremely common for nu abstractions in descriptions to have the x1 place ellipsized:

Example 11.13. 

mi nelci le nu limna
I like the event-of swimming.

I like swimming.


is elliptical, and most probably means:

Example 11.14. 

mi nelci le nu mi limna
I like the event-of I swim.

In the proper context, of course, Example 11.13 could refer to the event of somebody else swimming. Its English equivalent, I like swimming , can't be interpreted as I like Frank's swimming ; this is a fundamental distinction between English and Lojban. In Lojban, an omitted sumti can mean whatever the context indicates that it should mean.

Note that the lack of an explicit NU cmavo in a sumti can sometimes hide an implicit abstraction. In the context of Example 11.14 , the appearance of le se nelci ( that which is liked) is in effect an abstraction:

Example 11.15. 

le se nelci cu cafne
The liked-thing   is-frequent.

The thing which I like happens often.


which in this context means

My swimming happens often.

Event descriptions with le nu are commonly used to fill the under conditions... places, among others, of gismu and lujvo place structures:

Example 11.16. 

la .lojban. cu frili mi
That-named Lojban   is-easy-for me
  le nu mi tadni [kei]
under-conditions the event-of I study

Lojban is easy for me when I study.


(The when of the English would also be appropriate for a construction involving a Lojban tense, but the Lojban sentence says more than that the studying is concurrent with the ease.)

The place structure of a nu abstraction selbri is simply:

x1 is an event of (the bridi)

11.3. Types of event abstractions

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mu'e

NU

point-event abstractor

pu'u

NU

process abstractor

zu'o

NU

activity abstractor

za'i

NU

state abstractor

Event abstractions with nu suffice to express all kinds of events, whether long, short, unique, repetitive, or whatever. Lojban also has more finely discriminating machinery for talking about events, however. There are four other abstractors of selma'o NU for talking about four specific types of events, or four ways of looking at the same event.

An event considered as a point in time is called a point-event , or sometimes an achievement. (This latter word should be divorced, in this context, from all connotations of success or triumph.) A point-event can be extended in duration, but it is still a point-event if it is thought of as unitary, having no internal structure. The abstractor mu'e means point-event-of :

Example 11.17. 

le mu'e la .djan. catra la .djim. cu zekri
The point-event-of (that-named John kills that-named Jim)   is-a-crime.

John's killing Jim (considered as a point in time) is a crime.


An event considered as extended in time, and structured with a beginning, a middle containing one or more stages, and an end, is called a process. The abstractor pu'u means process-of :

Example 11.18. 

ca'o le pu'u le latmo balje'a cu porpi kei
[continuitive] the process-of( the Latin great-state breaking-up )
so'i je'atru cu selcatra
many state-rulers were-killed

During the fall of the Roman Empire, many Emperors were killed.


An event considered as extended in time and cyclic or repetitive is called an activity. The abstractor zu'o means activity-of :

Example 11.19. 

mi tatpi ri'a le zu'o mi plipe
I am-tired because-of the activity-of (I jump).

I am tired because I jump.


An event considered as something that is either happening or not happening, with sharp boundaries, is called a state. The abstractor za'i means state-of :

Example 11.20. 

le za'i mi jmive cu ckape do
The state-of (I am-alive)   is-dangerous-to you.

My being alive is dangerous to you.


The abstractors in Example 11.17 through Example 11.20 could all have been replaced by nu , with some loss of precision. Note that Lojban allows every sort of event to be viewed in any of these four ways:

  • the state of running begins when the runner starts and ends when the runner stops;

  • the activity of running consists of the cycle lift leg, step forward, drop leg, lift other leg... (each such cycle is a process, but the activity consists in the repetition of the cycle);

  • the process of running puts emphasis on the initial sprint, the steady speed, and the final slowdown;

  • the achievement of running is most alien to English, but sees the event of running as a single indivisible thing, like Pheidippides' run from Marathon to Athens (the original marathon).

Further information on types of events can be found in Section 11.12.

The four event type abstractors have the following place structures:

mu'e : x1 is a point event of (the bridi)

pu'u : x1 is a process of (the bridi) with stages x2

za'i : x1 is a continuous state of (the bridi) being true

zu'o : x1 is an activity of (the bridi) consisting of repeated actions x2

11.4. Property abstractions

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ka

NU

property abstractor

ce'u

KOhA

abstraction focus

The things described by le nu descriptions (or, to put it another way, the things of which nu selbri may correctly be predicated) are only moderately abstract. They are still closely tied to happenings in space and time. Properties, however, are much more ethereal. What is the property of being blue , or the property of being a go-er ? They are what logicians call intensions. If John has a heart, then the property of having a heart is an abstract object which, when applied to John, is true. In fact,

Example 11.21. 

la .djan. cu se risna zo'e
That-named John   has-as-heart something-unspecified.

John has a heart.


has the same truth conditions as

Example 11.22. 

la .djan. cu ckaji
That-named John   has-the-property
le ka se risna [zo'e] [kei]
the property-of having-as-heart something.

John has the property of having a heart.


(The English word have frequently appears in any discussion of Lojban properties: things are said to have properties, but this is not the same sense of have as in I have money , which is possession.)

Property descriptions, like event descriptions, are often wanted to fill places in brivla place structures:

Example 11.23. 

do cnino mi le ka xunre [kei]
You are-new to-me in-the-quality-of-the property-of being-red.

You are new to me in redness.


(The English suffix -ness often signals a property abstraction, as does the suffix -ity.)

It would be suitable to use Example 11.23 to someone who has returned from the beach with a sunburn.

There are several different properties that can be extracted from a bridi, depending on which place of the bridi is understood as being specified externally. Thus:

Example 11.24. 

ka mi prami [zo'e] [kei]
a-property-of me loving something-unspecified

is quite different from

Example 11.25. 

ka [zo'e] prami mi [kei]
a-property-of something-unspecified loving me

In particular, sentences like Example 11.26 and Example 11.27 are quite different in meaning:

Example 11.26. 

la .djan. cu zmadu la .djordj.
That-named John   exceeds that-named George
le ka mi prami
in-the property-of (I love X)

I love John more than I love George.


Example 11.27. 

la .djan. cu zmadu la .djordj.
That-named John   exceeds that-named George
le ka prami mi
in-the property of (X loves me).

John loves me more than George loves me.


The X used in the glosses of Example 11.26 through Example 11.27 as a place-holder cannot be represented only by ellipsis in Lojban, because ellipsis means that there must be a specific value that can fill the ellipsis, as mentioned in Section 11.2. Instead, the cmavo ce'u of selma'o KOhA is employed when an explicit sumti is wanted. (The form X will be used in literal translations.)

Therefore, an explicit equivalent of Example 11.26 , with no ellipsis, is:

Example 11.28. 

la .djan. cu zmadu la .djordj.
That-named John   exceeds that-named George
le ka mi prami ce'u
in-the property-of (I love X).

and of Example 11.27 is:

Example 11.29. 

la .djan. cu zmadu la .djordj.
That-named John   exceeds that-named George
le ka ce'u prami mi
in-the property-of (X loves me).

This convention allows disambiguation of cases like:

Example 11.30. 

le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei]
the property-of   giving the horse

into

Example 11.31. 

le ka ce'u dunda le xirma [zo'e] [kei]
the property-of (X is-a-giver-of the horse to someone-unspecified )

the property of being a giver of the horse


which is the most natural interpretation of Example 11.30 , versus

Example 11.32. 

le ka [zo'e] dunda le xirma ce'u [kei]
the property-of (someone-unspecified is-a-giver-of the horse to X )

the property of being one to whom the horse is given


which is also a possible interpretation.

It is also possible to have more than one ce'u in a ka abstraction, which transforms it from a property abstraction into a relationship abstraction. Relationship abstractions package up a complex relationship for future use; such an abstraction can be translated back into a selbri by placing it in the x2 place of the selbri bridi , whose place structure is:

bridi x1 is a predicate relationship with relation x2 (abstraction) among arguments (sequence/set) x3

The place structure of ka abstraction selbri is simply:

ka x1 is a property of (the bridi)

11.5. Amount abstractions

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

ni

NU

amount abstraction

Amount abstractions are far more limited than event or property abstractions. They really make sense only if the selbri of the abstracted bridi is subject to measurement of some sort. Thus we can speak of:

Example 11.33. 

le ni le pixra cu blanu [kei]
the amount-of (the picture   being-blue )

the amount of blueness in the picture


because blueness could be measured with a colorimeter or a similar device. However,

Example 11.34. 

le ni la .djein. cu mamta [kei]
the amount-of (that-named Jane   being-a-mother )

the amount of Jane's mother-ness (?)

the amount of mother-ness in Jane (?)


makes very little sense in either Lojban or English. We simply do not have any sort of measurement scale for being a mother.

Semantically, a sumti with le ni is a number; however, it cannot be treated grammatically as a quantifier in Lojban unless prefixed by the mathematical cmavo mo'e :

Example 11.35. 

li pa vu'u mo'e le ni  
the-number 1 minus the-operand the amount-of (
le pixra cu blanu [kei]
the picture   being-blue )

1 - B , where B = blueness of the picture


Mathematical Lojban is beyond the scope of this chapter, and is explained more fully in Chapter 18.

Whenever we talk of measurement of an amount, there is some sort of scale, and so the place structure of ni abstraction selbri is:

ni x1 is the amount of (the bridi) on scale x2

Note: the best way to express the x2 places of abstract sumti is to use something like le ni ... kei be. See Example 11.59 for the use of this construction.

11.6. Truth-value abstraction: jei

The blueness of the picture discussed in Section 11.5 refers to the measurable amount of blue pigment (or other source of blueness), not to the degree of truth of the claim that blueness is present. That abstraction is expressed in Lojban using jei , which is closely related semantically to ni. In the simplest cases, le jei produces not a number but a truth value:

Example 11.36. 

le jei li re su'i re du li vo [kei]
the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 = the-number 4

the truth of 2 + 2 being 4


is equivalent to truth , and

Example 11.37. 

le jei li re su'i re du li mu [kei]
the truth-value-of the-number 2 + 2 = the-number 5

the truth of 2 + 2 being 5


is equivalent to falsehood.

However, not everything in life (or even in Lojban) is simply true or false. There are shades of gray even in truth value, and jei is Lojban's mechanism for indicating the shade of grey intended:

Example 11.38. 

mi ba jdice tu'a le jei la .djordj.
I [future] decide on the (truth-value of that-named George
cu zekri gasnu [kei]
  being-a-(crime doer) ).

I will decide on the topic of whether George is a criminal.


Example 11.38 does not imply that George is, or is not, definitely a criminal. Depending on the legal system I am using, I may make some intermediate decision. As a result, jei requires an x2 place analogous to that of ni :

jei x1 is the truth value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2

Abstractions using jei are the mechanism for fuzzy logic in Lojban; the jei abstraction refers to a number between 0 and 1 inclusive (as distinct from ni abstractions, which are often on open-ended scales). The detailed conventions for using jei in fuzzy-logic contexts have not yet been established.

11.7. Predication/sentence abstraction

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

du'u

NU

predication abstraction

There are some selbri which demand an entire predication as a sumti; they make claims about some predication considered as a whole. Logicians call these the propositional attitudes , and they include (in English) things like knowing, believing, learning, seeing, hearing, and the like. Consider the English sentence:

Example 11.39. 

I know that Frank is a fool.


How's that in Lojban? Let us try:

Example 11.40. 

mi djuno le nu la .frank. cu bebna [kei]

I know the event of Frank being a fool.


Not quite right. Events are actually or potentially physical, and can't be contained inside one's mind, except for events of thinking, feeling, and the like; Example 11.40 comes close to claiming that Frank's being-a-fool is purely a mental activity on the part of the speaker. (In fact, Example 11.40 is an instance of improperly marked sumti raising , a concept discussed further in Section 11.10 , a properly marked sumti-raising would be mi djuno tu'a le nu la .frank. cu bebna [kei]).

Try again:

Example 11.41. 

mi djuno tu'a le jei la .frank. cu bebna [kei]

I know about the truth-value of Frank being a fool.


Closer. Example 11.41 says that I know whether or not Frank is a fool, but doesn't say that he is one, as Example 11.39 does. To catch that nuance, we must say:

Example 11.42. 

mi djuno le du'u la .frank. cu bebna [kei]

I know the predication that Frank is a fool.


Now we have it. Note that the implied assertion Frank is a fool is not a property of le du'u abstraction, but of djuno ; we can only know what is in fact true. (As a result, djuno like jei has a place for epistemology, which specifies how we know.) Example 11.43 has no such implied assertion:

Example 11.43. 

mi kucli le du'u la .frank. cu bebna [kei]

I am curious about whether Frank is a fool.


and here du'u could probably be replaced by tu'a le jei without much change in meaning:

Example 11.44. 

mi kucli tu'a le jei la .frank. cu bebna [kei]

I am curious about how true it is that Frank is a fool.


As a matter of convenience rather than logical necessity, du'u has been given an x2 place, which is a sentence (piece of language) expressing the bridi:

du'u x1 is the predication (the bridi), expressed in sentence x2

and le se du'u ... is very useful in filling places of selbri which refer to speaking, writing, or other linguistic behavior regarding bridi:

Example 11.45. 

la .djan. cusku le se du'u
That-named John expresses the (sentence-expressing-that
la .djordj. klama le zarci [kei]
that-named George goes-to the store )

John says that George goes to the store.


Example 11.45 differs from

Example 11.46. 

la djan cusku lu
That-named John expresses, quote,
la .djordj. klama le zarci li'u
that-named George goes to-the store, unquote.

John says George goes to the store.


because Example 11.46 claims that John actually said the quoted words, whereas Example 11.45 claims only that he said some words or other which were to the same purpose.

le se du'u is much the same as lu'e le du'u , a symbol for the predication, but se du'u can be used as a selbri, whereas lu'e is ungrammatical in a selbri. (See Section 6.10 for a discussion of lu'e.)

11.8. Indirect questions

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

kau

UI

indirect question marker

There is an alternative type of sentence involving du'u and a selbri expressing a propositional attitude. In addition to sentences like

Example 11.47. 

I know that John went to the store.


we can also say things like

Example 11.48. 

I know who went to the store.


This form is called an indirect question in English because the embedded English sentence is a question: Who went to the store? A person who says Example 11.48 is claiming to know the answer to this question. Indirect questions can occur with many other English verbs as well: I can wonder, or doubt, or see, or hear, as well as know who went to the store.

To express indirect questions in Lojban, we use a le du'u abstraction, but rather than using a question word like who ( ma in Lojban), we use any word that will fit grammatically and mark it with the suffix particle kau. This cmavo belongs to selma'o UI, so grammatically it can appear anywhere. The simplest Lojban translation of Example 11.48 is therefore:

Example 11.49. 

mi djuno le du'u
I know the predication-of
ma kau pu klama le zarci
X [indirect-question] [past] going-to the store.

In Example 11.49 , we have chosen to use ma as the word marked by kau. In fact, any other sumti would have done as well: zo'e or da or even la .djan.. Using la .djan. would suggest that it was John who I knew had gone to the store, however:

Example 11.50. 

mi djuno le du'u
I know the predication-of/fact-that
la .djan. kau pu klama le zarci
that-named John [indirect-question] [past] going-to the store.

I know who went to the store, namely John.

I know that it was John who went to the store.


Using one of the indefinite pro-sumti such as ma , zo'e , or da does not suggest any particular value.

Why does Lojban require the kau marker, rather than using ma as English and Chinese and many other languages do? Because ma always signals a direct question, and so

Example 11.51. 

mi djuno le du'u ma pu klama le zarci
I know the predication-of [what sumti?] [past] goes-to the store

means

Example 11.52. 

Who is it that I know goes to the store?


It is actually not necessary to use le du'u and kau at all if the indirect question involves a sumti; there is generally a paraphrase of the type:

Example 11.53. 

mi djuno fi le pu klama be le zarci
I know about the [past] goer to the store.

I know something about the one who went to the store (namely, his identity).


because the x3 place of djuno is the subject of knowledge, as opposed to the fact that is known. But when the questioned point is not a sumti, but (say) a logical connection, then there is no good alternative to kau :

Example 11.54. 

mi ba zgana le du'u la .djan.
I [future] observe the predication-of/fact-that that-named John
jikau la .djordj. cu zvati le panka
[connective-indirect-question] that-named George is-at the park.

I will see whether John or George (or both) is at the park.


In addition, Example 11.53 is only a loose paraphrase of Example 11.49 , because it is left to the listener's insight to realize that what is known about the goer-to-the-store is his identity rather than some other of his attributes.

11.9. Minor abstraction types

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

li'i

NU

experience abstractor

si'o

NU

concept abstractor

su'u

NU

general abstractor

There are three more abstractors in Lojban, all of them little used so far. The abstractor li'i expresses experience:

Example 11.55. 

mi morji le li'i mi verba
I remember the experience-of (my being-a-child)

The abstractor si'o expresses a mental image, a concept, an idea:

Example 11.56. 

mi nelci le si'o la .lojban. cu mulno
I enjoy the concept-of that-named Lojban   being-complete.

Finally, the abstractor su'u is a vague abstractor, whose meaning must be grasped from context:

Example 11.57. 

ko zgana le su'u le ci smacu cu bajra
you [imperative] observe the abstract-nature-of the three mice   running

See how the three mice run!


All three of these abstractors have an x2 place. An experience requires an experiencer, so the place structure of li'i is:

li'i x1 is the experience of (the bridi) as experienced by x2

Similarly, an idea requires a mind to hold it, so the place structure of si'o is:

si'o x1 is the idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2

Finally, there needs to be some way of specifying just what sort of abstraction su'u is representing, so its place structure is:

su'u x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi) of type x2

The x2 place of su'u allows it to serve as a substitute for any of the other abstractors, or as a template for creating new ones. For example,

Example 11.58. 

le nu mi klama
the event-of my going

can be paraphrased as

Example 11.59. 

le su'u mi klama kei be lo fasnu
the abstract-nature-of (my going)   of-type an event

and there is a book whose title might be rendered in Lojban as:

Example 11.60. 

le su'u la .iecuas.
the abstract-nature-of (that-named Jesus
kuctai selcatra kei
is-an-intersect-shape type-of-killed-one )
be lo sa'ordzifa'a
of-type a slope-low-direction
ke nalmatma'e sutyterjvi
type-of non-motor-vehicle speed-competition

The Crucifixion of Jesus Considered As A Downhill Bicycle Race


Note the importance of using kei after su'u when the x2 of su'u (or any other abstractor) is being specified; otherwise, the be lo ends up inside the abstraction bridi.

11.10. Lojban sumti raising

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'a

LAhE

an abstraction involving

jai

JAI

abstraction conversion

It is sometimes inconvenient, in a situation where an abstract description is logically required, to express the abstraction. In English we can say:

Example 11.61. 

I try to open the door.


which in Lojban is:

Example 11.62. 

mi troci le nu [mi] gasnu
I try the event-of (I am-agent-in
le nu le vorme cu karbi'o
the event-of (the door open-becomes)).

which has an abstract description within an abstract description, quite a complex structure. In English (but not in all other languages), we may also say:

Example 11.63. 

I try the door.


where it is understood that what I try is actually not the door itself, but the act of opening it. The same simplification can be done in Lojban, but it must be marked explicitly using a cmavo. The relevant cmavo is tu'a , which belongs to selma'o LAhE. The Lojban equivalent of Example 11.63 is:

Example 11.64. 

mi troci tu'a le vorme
I try some-action-to-do-with the door.

The term sumti-raising , as in the title of this section, signifies that a sumti which logically belongs within an abstraction (or even within an abstraction which is itself inside an intermediate abstraction) is raised to the main bridi level. This transformation from Example 11.62 to Example 11.64 loses information: nothing except convention tells us what the abstraction was.

Using tu'a is a kind of laziness: it makes speaking easier at the possible expense of clarity for the listener. The speaker must be prepared for the listener to respond something like:

Example 11.65. 

tu'a le vorme lu'u ki'a
something-to-do-with the door [terminator] [confusion!]

which indicates that tu'a le vorme cannot be understood. (The terminator for tu'a is lu'u , and is used in Example 11.65 to make clear just what is being questioned: the sumti-raising, rather than the word vorme as such.) An example of a confusing raised sumti might be:

Example 11.66. 

tu'a la .djan. cu cafne
something-to-do-with that-named John   frequently-occurs

This must mean that something which John does, or which happens to John, occurs frequently: but without more context there is no way to figure out what. Note that without the tu'a , Example 11.66 would mean that John considered as an event frequently occurs – in other words, that John has some sort of on-and-off existence! Normally we do not think of people as events in English, but the x1 place of cafne is an event, and if something that does not seem to be an event is put there, the Lojbanic listener will attempt to construe it as one. (Of course, this analysis assumes that .djan. is the name of a person, and not the name of some event.)

Logically, a counterpart of some sort is needed to tu'a which transposes an abstract sumti into a concrete one. This is achieved at the selbri level by the cmavo jai (of selma'o JAI). This cmavo has more than one function, discussed in Section 9.12 and Section 10.22 ; for the purposes of this chapter, it operates as a conversion of selbri, similarly to the cmavo of selma'o SE. This conversion changes

Example 11.67. 

tu'a mi rinka le nu do morsi
something-to-do-with me causes the event-of you are-dead

My action causes your death.


into

Example 11.68. 

mi jai rinka le nu do morsi
I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.

I cause your death.


In English, the subject of cause can either be the actual cause (an event), or else the agent of the cause (a person, typically); not so in Lojban, where the x1 of rinka is always an event. Example 11.67 and Example 11.68 look equally convenient (or inconvenient), but in making descriptions, Example 11.68 can be altered to:

Example 11.69. 

le jai rinka be le nu do morsi
that-which-is associated-with causing ( the event-of your death )

the one who caused your death


because jai modifies the selbri and can be incorporated into the description – not so for tu'a.

The weakness of jai used in descriptions in this way is that it does not specify which argument of the implicit abstraction is being raised into the x1 place of the description selbri. One can be more specific by using the modal form of jai explained in Section 9.12 :

Example 11.70. 

le jai gau rinka be le nu do morsi
that-which-is agent-in causing ( the event-of your death )

11.11. Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses

This section is a logical continuation of Section 11.3.

There exists a relationship between the four types of events explained in Section 11.3 and the event contour tense cmavo of selma'o ZAhO. The specific cmavo of NU and of ZAhO are mutually interdefining; the ZAhO contours were chosen to fit the needs of the NU event types and vice versa. Event contours are explained in full in Section 10.10 , and only summarized here.

The purpose of ZAhO cmavo is to represent the natural portions of an event, such as the beginning, the middle, and the end. They fall into several groups:

  • The cmavo pu'o , ca'o , and ba'o represent spans of time: before an event begins, while it is going on, and after it is over, respectively.

  • The cmavo co'a , de'a , di'a , and co'u represent points of time: the start of an event, the temporary stopping of an event, the resumption of an event after a stop, and the end of an event, respectively. Not all events can have breaks in them, in which case de'a and di'a do not apply.

  • The cmavo mo'u and za'o correspond to co'u and ba'o respectively, in the case of those events which have a natural ending point that may not be the same as the actual ending point: mo'u refers to the natural ending point, and za'o to the time between the natural ending point and the actual ending point (the excessive or superfective part of the event).

  • The cmavo co'i represents an entire event considered as a point-event or achievement.

All these cmavo are applicable to events seen as processes and abstracted with pu'u. Only processes have enough internal structure to make all these points and spans of time meaningful.

For events seen as states and abstracted with za'i , the meaningful event contours are the spans pu'o , ca'o , and ba'o ; the starting and ending points co'a and co'u , and the achievement contour co'i. States do not have natural endings distinct from their actual endings. (It is an open question whether states can be stopped and resumed.)

For events seen as activities and abstracted with zu'o , the meaningful event contours are the spans pu'o , ca'o , and ba'o , and the achievement contour co'i. Because activities are inherently cyclic and repetitive, the beginning and ending points are not well-defined: you do not know whether an activity has truly begun until it begins to repeat.

For events seen as point-events and abstracted with mu'e , the meaningful event contours are the spans pu'o and ba'o but not ca'o (a point-event has no duration), and the achievement contour co'i.

Note that the parts of events are themselves events, and may be treated as such. The points in time may be seen as mu'e point-events; the spans of time may constitute processes or activities. Therefore, Lojban allows us to refer to processes within processes, activities within states, and many other complicated abstract things.

11.12. Abstractor connection

An abstractor may be replaced by two or more abstractors joined by logical or non-logical connectives. Connectives are explained in detail in Chapter 14.

Example 11.71. 

le mikce cu se cinri le pu'u jenai za'i mi sipna

The doctor is interested in the process of me sleeping but not in the state of me sleeping.


This feature of Lojban has hardly ever been used, and nobody knows what uses it may eventually have.

11.13. Table of abstractors

The following table gives each abstractor, an English gloss for it, a Lojban gismu which is connected with it (more or less remotely: the associations between abstractors and gismu are meant more as memory hooks than for any kind of inference), the rafsi associated with it, and (on the following line) its place structure.

nu

event of

fasnu

nun

x1 is an event of (the bridi)

ka

property of

ckaji

kam

x1 is a property of (the bridi)

ni

amount of

klani

nil

x1 is an amount of (the bridi) measured on scale x2

jei

truth-value of

jetnu

jez

x1 is a truth-value of (the bridi) under epistemology x2

li'i

experience of

lifri

liz

x1 is an experience of (the bridi) to experiencer x2

si'o

idea of

sidbo

siz

x1 is an idea/concept of (the bridi) in the mind of x2

du'u

predication of

-----

dum

x1 is the bridi (the bridi) expressed by sentence x2

su'u

abstraction of

sucta

suv

x1 is an abstract nature of (the bridi)

za'i

state of

zasti

zaz

x1 is a state of (the bridi)

zu'o

activity of

zukte

zum

x1 is an activity of (the bridi)

pu'u

process of

pruce

puv

x1 is a process of (the bridi)

mu'e

point-event of

mulno

muf

x1 is a point-event/achievement of (the bridi)

Chapter 12. Dog house and white house: determining lujvo place structures

The picture for chapter 12

12.1. Why have lujvo?

The Lojban vocabulary is founded on its list of 1350-plus gismu, made up by combining word lists from various sources. These gismu are not intended to be either a complete vocabulary for the language nor a minimal list of semantic primitives. Instead, the gismu list serves as a basis for the creation of compound words, or lujvo. The intention is that (except in certain semantically broad but shallow fields such as cultures, nations, foods, plants, and animals) suitable lujvo can be devised to cover the ten million or so concepts expressible in all the world's languages taken together. Grammatically, lujvo behave just like gismu: they have place structures and function as selbri.

There is a close relationship between lujvo and tanru. In fact, lujvo are condensed forms of tanru:

Example 12.1. 

ti fagri festi
That is fire waste.

contains a tanru which can be reduced to the lujvo in:

Example 12.2. 

ti fagyfesti
That is-fire-waste.
That is-ashes.

Although the lujvo fagyfesti is derived from the tanru fagri festi , it is not equivalent in meaning to it. In particular, fagyfesti has a distinct place structure of its own, not the same as that of festi. (In contrast, the tanru does have the same place structure as festi.) The lujvo needs to take account of the places of fagri as well. When a tanru is made into a lujvo, there is no equivalent of bebeibe'o (described in Section 5.7) to incorporate sumti into the middle of the lujvo.

So why have lujvo? Primarily to reduce semantic ambiguity. On hearing a tanru, there is a burden on the listener to figure out what the tanru might mean. Adding further terms to the tanru reduces ambiguity in one sense, by providing more information; but it increases ambiguity in another sense, because there are more and more tanru joints, each with an ambiguous significance. Since lujvo, like other brivla, have a fixed place structure and a single meaning, encapsulating a commonly-used tanru into a lujvo relieves the listener of the burden of creative understanding. In addition, lujvo are typically shorter than the corresponding tanru.

There are no absolute laws fixing the place structure of a newly created lujvo. The maker must consider the place structures of all the components of the tanru and then decide which are still relevant and which can be removed. What is said in this chapter represents guidelines, presented as one possible standard, not necessarily complete, and not the only possible standard. There may well be lujvo that are built without regard for these guidelines, or in accordance with entirely different guidelines, should such alternative guidelines someday be developed. The reason for presenting any guidelines at all is so that Lojbanists have a starting point for deciding on a likely place structure – one that others seeing the same word can also arrive at by similar consideration.

If the tanru includes connective cmavo such as bo , ke , ke'e , or je , or conversion or abstraction cmavo such as se or nu , there are ways of incorporating them into the lujvo as well. Sometimes this makes the lujvo excessively long; if so, the cmavo may be dropped. This leads to the possibility that more than one tanru could produce the same lujvo. Typically, however, only one of the possible tanru is useful enough to justify making a lujvo for it.

The exact workings of the lujvo-making algorithm, which takes a tanru built from gismu (and possibly cmavo) and produces a lujvo from it, are described in Section 4.11.

12.2. The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour

The meaning of a lujvo is controlled by – but is not the same as – the meaning of the tanru from which the lujvo was constructed. The tanru corresponding to a lujvo is called its veljvo in Lojban, and since there is no concise English equivalent, that term will be used in this chapter. Furthermore, the left (modifier) part of a tanru will be called the seltau , and the right (modified) part the tertau , following the usage of Chapter 5. For brevity, we will speak of the seltau or tertau of a lujvo, meaning of course the seltau or tertau of the veljvo of that lujvo. (If this terminology is confusing, substituting modifier for seltau and modified for tertau may help.)

The place structure of a tanru is always the same as the place structure of its tertau. As a result, the meaning of the tanru is a modified version of the meaning of the tertau; the tanru will typically, but not always, refer to a subset of the things referred to by the tertau.

The purpose of a tanru is to join concepts together without necessarily focusing on the exact meaning of the seltau. For example, in the Iliad , the poet talks about the wine-dark sea , in which wine is a seltau relative to dark , and the pair of words is a seltau relative to sea. We're talking about the sea, not about wine or color. The other words are there to paint a scene in the listener's mind, in which the real action will occur, and to evoke relations to other sagas of the time similarly describing the sea. Logical inferences about wine or color will be rejected as irrelevant.

As a simple example, consider the rather non-obvious tanru klama zdani , or goer-house. The gismu zdani has two places:

Example 12.3. 

x1 is a nest/house/lair/den for inhabitant x2


(but in this chapter we will use simply house , for brevity), and the gismu klama has five:

Example 12.4. 

x1 goes to destination x2 from origin point x3 via route x4 using means x5


The tanru klama zdani will also have two places, namely those of zdani. Since a klama zdani is a type of zdani , we can assume that all goer-houses – whatever they may be – are also houses.

But is knowing the places of the tertau everything that is needed to understand the meaning of a tanru? No. To see why, let us switch to a less unlikely tanru: gerku zdani , literally dog house. A tanru expresses a very loose relation: a gerku zdani is a house that has something to do with some dog or dogs. What the precise relation might be is left unstated. Thus, the meaning of lo gerku zdani can include all of the following: houses occupied by dogs, houses shaped by dogs, dogs which are also houses (e.g. houses for fleas), houses named after dogs, and so on. All that is essential is that the place structure of zdani continues to apply.

For something (call it z1) to qualify as a gerku zdani in Lojban, it's got to be a house, first of all. For it to be a house, it's got to house someone (call that z2). Furthermore, there's got to be a dog somewhere (called g1). For g1 to count as a dog in Lojban, it's got to belong to some breed as well (called g2). And finally, for z1 to be in the first place of gerku zdani , as opposed to just zdani , there's got to be some relationship (called r) between some place of zdani and some place of gerku. It doesn't matter which places, because if there's a relationship between some place of zdani and any place of gerku , then that relationship can be compounded with the relationship between the places of gerku - namely, gerku itself – to reach any of the other gerku places. Thus, if the relationship turns out to be between z2 and g2, we can still state r in terms of z1 and g1: the relationship involves the dog g1, whose breed has to do with the occupant of the house z1.

Doubtless to the relief of the reader, here's an illustration. We want to find out whether the White House (the one in which the U. S. President lives, that is) counts as a gerku zdani. We go through the five variables. The White House is the z1. It houses Bill Clinton as z2, as of this writing, so it counts as a zdani. Let's take a dog – say, Spot (g1). Spot has to have a breed; let's say it's a Saint Bernard (g2). Now, the White House counts as a gerku zdani if there is any relationship (r) at all between the White House and Spot. (We'll choose the g1 and z1 places to relate by r; we could have chosen any other pair of places, and simply gotten a different relationship.)

The sky is the limit for r; it can be as complicated as The other day, g1 (Spot) chased Socks, who is owned by Chelsea Clinton, who is the daughter of Bill Clinton, who lives in z1 (the White House) or even worse. If no such r can be found, well, you take another dog, and keep going until no more dogs can be found. Only then can we say that the White House cannot fit into the first place of gerku zdani.

As we have seen, no less than five elements are involved in the definition of gerku zdani : the house, the house dweller, the dog, the dog breed (everywhere a dog goes in Lojban, a dog breed follows), and the relationship between the house and the dog. Since tanru are explicitly ambiguous in Lojban, the relationship r cannot be expressed within a tanru (if it could, it wouldn't be a tanru any more!) All the other places, however, can be expressed – thus:

Example 12.5. 

la blabi zdani cu gerku be fa la .spot.
That-named White House is-a-dog ( namely that-named Spot
bei la .sankt. .berNARD. be'o
of-breed that-named Saint Bernard )
zdani la .bil. .klinton.
type-of-house-for that-named Bill Clinton.

Not the most elegant sentence ever written in either Lojban or English. Yet if there is any relation at all between Spot and the White House, Example 12.5 is arguably true. If we concentrate on just one type of relation in interpreting the tanru gerku zdani , then the meaning of gerku zdani changes. So if we understand gerku zdani as having the same meaning as the English word doghouse , the White House would no longer be a gerku zdani with respect to Spot, because as far as we know Spot does not actually live in the White House, and the White House is not a doghouse (derogatory terms for incumbents notwithstanding).

12.3. The meaning of lujvo

This is a fairly long way to go to try and work out how to say doghouse ! The reader can take heart; we're nearly there. Recall that one of the components involved in fixing the meaning of a tanru – the one left deliberately vague – is the precise relation between the tertau and the seltau. Indeed, fixing this relation is tantamount to giving an interpretation to the ambiguous tanru.

A lujvo is defined by a single disambiguated instance of a tanru. That is to say, when we try to design the place structure of a lujvo, we don't need to try to discover the relation between the tertau and the seltau. We already know what kind of relation we're looking for; it's given by the specific need we wish to express, and it determines the place structure of the lujvo itself.

Therefore, it is generally not appropriate to simply devise lujvo and decide on place structures for them without considering one or more specific usages for the coinage. If one does not consider specifics, one will be likely to make erroneous generalizations on the relationship r.

The insight driving the rest of this chapter is this: while the relation expressed by a tanru can be very distant (e.g. Spot chasing Socks, above), the relationship singled out for disambiguation in a lujvo should be quite close. This is because lujvo-making, paralleling natural language compounding, picks out the most salient relationship r between a tertau place and a seltau place to be expressed in a single word. The relationship dog chases cat owned by daughter of person living in house is too distant, and too incidental, to be likely to need expression as a single short word; the relationship dog lives in house is not. From all the various interpretations of gerku zdani , the person creating gerzda should pick the most useful value of r. The most useful one is usually going to be the most obvious one, and the most obvious one is usually the closest one.

In fact, the relationship will almost always be so close that the predicate expressing r will be either the seltau or the tertau predicate itself. This should come as no surprise, given that a word like zdani in Lojban is a predicate. Predicates express relations; so when you're looking for a relation to tie together le zdani and le gerku , the most obvious relation to pick is the very relation named by the tertau, zdani : the relation between a home and its dweller. As a result, the object which fills the first place of gerku (the dog) also fills the second place of zdani (the house-dweller).

The seltau-tertau relationship in the veljvo is expressed by the seltau or tertau predicate itself. Therefore, at least one of the seltau places is going to be equivalent to a tertau place. This place is thus redundant, and can be dropped from the place structure of the lujvo. As a corollary, the precise relationship between the veljvo components can be implicitly determined by finding one or more places to overlap in this way.

So what is the place structure of gerzda ? We're left with three places, since the dweller, the se zdani , turned out to be identical to the dog, the gerku. We can proceed as follows:

(The notation introduced casually in Section 12.2 will be useful in the rest of this chapter. Rather than using the regular x1, x2, etc. to represent places, we'll use the first letter of the relevant gismu in place of the x , or more than one letter where necessary to resolve ambiguities. Thus, z1 is the first place of zdani , and g2 is the second place of gerku.)

The place structure of zdani is given as Example 12.3 , but is repeated here using the new notation:

Example 12.6. 

z1 is a nest/house/lair/den of z2


The place structure of gerku is:

Example 12.7. 

g1 is a dog of breed g2


But z2 is the same as g1; therefore, the tentative place structure for gerzda now becomes:

Example 12.8. 

z1 is a house for dweller z2 of breed g2


which can also be written

Example 12.9. 

z1 is a house for dog g1 of breed g2


or more comprehensively

Example 12.10. 

z1 is a house for dweller/dog z2=g1 of breed g2


Despite the apparently conclusive nature of Example 12.10 , our task is not yet done: we still need to decide whether any of the remaining places should also be eliminated, and what order the lujvo places should appear in. These concerns will be addressed in the remainder of the chapter; but we are now equipped with the terminology needed for those discussions.

12.4. Selecting places

The set of places of an ordinary lujvo are selected from the places of its component gismu. More precisely, the places of such a lujvo are derived from the set of places of the component gismu by eliminating unnecessary places, until just enough places remain to give an appropriate meaning to the lujvo. In general, including a place makes the concept expressed by a lujvo more general; excluding a place makes the concept more specific, because omitting the place requires assuming a standard value or range of values for it.

It would be possible to design the place structure of a lujvo from scratch, treating it as if it were a gismu, and working out what arguments contribute to the notion to be expressed by the lujvo. There are two reasons arguing against doing so and in favor of the procedure detailed in this chapter.

The first is that it might be very difficult for a hearer or reader, who has no preconceived idea of what concept the lujvo is intended to convey, to work out what the place structure actually is. Instead, he or she would have to make use of a lujvo dictionary every time a lujvo is encountered in order to work out what a se jbopli or a te klagau is. But this would mean that, rather than having to learn just the 1300-odd gismu place structures, a Lojbanist would also have to learn myriads of lujvo place structures with little or no apparent pattern or regularity to them. The purpose of the guidelines documented in this chapter is to apply regularity and to make it conventional wherever possible.

The second reason is related to the first: if the veljvo of the lujvo has not been properly selected, and the places for the lujvo are formulated from scratch, then there is a risk that some of the places formulated may not correspond to any of the places of the gismu used in the veljvo of the lujvo. If that is the case – that is to say, if the lujvo places are not a subset of the veljvo gismu places – then it will be very difficult for the hearer or reader to understand what a particular place means, and what it is doing in that particular lujvo. This is a topic that will be further discussed in Section 12.14.

However, second-guessing the place structure of the lujvo is useful in guiding the process of subsequently eliminating places from the veljvo. If the Lojbanist has an idea of what the final place structure should look like, he or she should be able to pick an appropriate veljvo to begin with, in order to express the idea, and then to decide which places are relevant or not relevant to expressing that idea.

12.5. Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo

A common pattern, perhaps the most common pattern, of lujvo-making creates what is called a symmetrical lujvo. A symmetrical lujvo is one based on a tanru interpretation such that the first place of the seltau is equivalent to the first place of the tertau: each component of the tanru characterizes the same object. As an illustration of this, consider the lujvo balsoi : it is intended to mean both great and a soldier - that is, great soldier , which is the interpretation we would tend to give its veljvo, banli sonci. The underlying gismu place structures are:

Example 12.11. 

banli b1 is great in property b2 by standard b3

sonci s1 is a soldier of army s2


In this case the s1 place of sonci is redundant, since it is equivalent to the b1 place of banli. Therefore the place structure of balsoi need not include places for both s1 and b1, as they refer to the same thing. So the place structure of balsoi is at most

Example 12.12. 

b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3


Some symmetrical veljvo have further equivalent places in addition to the respective first places. Consider the lujvo tinju'i , to listen ( to hear attentively, to hear and pay attention). The place structures of the gismu tirna and jundi are:

Example 12.13. 

tirna t1 hears sound t2 against background noise t3

jundi j1 pays attention to j2


and the place structure of the lujvo is:

Example 12.14. 

j1=t1 listens to j2=t2 against background noise t3


Why so? Because not only is the j1 place (the one who pays attention) equivalent to the t1 place (the hearer), but the j2 place (the thing paid attention to) is equivalent to the t2 place (the thing heard).

A substantial minority of lujvo have the property that the first place of the seltau ( gerku in this case) is equivalent to a place other than the first place of the tertau; such lujvo are said to be asymmetrical. (There is a deliberate parallel here with the terms asymmetrical tanru and symmetrical tanru used in Chapter 5.)

In principle any asymmetrical lujvo could be expressed as a symmetrical lujvo. Consider gerzda , discussed in Section 12.3 , where we learned that the g1 place was equivalent to the z2 place. In order to get the places aligned, we could convert zdani to se zdani (or selzda when expressed as a lujvo). The place structure of selzda is

Example 12.15. 

s1 is housed by nest s2


and so the three-part lujvo gerselzda would have the place structure

Example 12.16. 

s1=g1 is a dog housed in nest s2 of dog breed g2


However, although gerselzda is a valid lujvo, it doesn't translate doghouse ; its first place is the dog, not the doghouse. Furthermore, it is more complicated than necessary; gerzda is simpler than gerselzda.

From the reader's or listener's point of view, it may not always be obvious whether a newly met lujvo is symmetrical or asymmetrical, and if the latter, what kind of asymmetrical lujvo. If the place structure of the lujvo isn't given in a dictionary or elsewhere, then plausibility must be applied, just as in interpreting tanru.

The lujvo karcykla , for example, is based on karce klama , or car goer. The place structure of karce is:

Example 12.17. 

karce: ka1 is a car carrying ka2 propelled by ka3


An asymmetrical interpretation of karcykla that is strictly analogous to the place structure of gerzda , equating the kl2 (destination) and ka1 (car) places, would lead to the place structure

Example 12.18. 

kl1 goes to car kl2=ka1 which carries ka2 propelled by ka3 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of kl5


But in general we go about in cars, rather than going to cars, so a far more likely place structure treats the ka1 place as equivalent to the kl5 place, leading to

Example 12.19. 

kl1 goes to destination kl2 from origin kl3 via route kl4 by means of car kl5=ka1 carrying ka2 propelled by ka3.


instead.

12.6. Dependent places

In order to understand which places, if any, should be completely removed from a lujvo place structure, we need to understand the concept of dependent places. One place of a brivla is said to be dependent on another if its value can be predicted from the values of one or more of the other places. For example, the g2 place of gerku is dependent on the g1 place. Why? Because when we know what fits in the g1 place (Spot, let us say, a well-known dog), then we know what fits in the g2 place ( St. Bernard , let us say). In other words, when the value of the g1 place has been specified, the value of the g2 place is determined by it. Conversely, since each dog has only one breed, but each breed contains many dogs, the g1 place is not dependent on the g2 place; if we know only that some dog is a St. Bernard, we cannot tell by that fact alone which dog is meant.

For zdani , on the other hand, there is no dependency between the places. When we know the identity of a house-dweller, we have not determined the house, because a dweller may dwell in more than one house. By the same token, when we know the identity of a house, we do not know the identity of its dweller, for a house may contain more than one dweller.

The rule for eliminating places from a lujvo is that dependent places provided by the seltau are eliminated. Therefore, in gerzda the dependent g2 place is removed from the tentative place structure given in Example 12.10 , leaving the place structure:

Example 12.20. 

z1 is the house dwelt in by dog z2=g1


Informally put, the reason this has happened – and it happens a lot with seltau places – is that the third place was describing not the doghouse, but the dog who lives in it. The sentence

Example 12.21. 

la .mon. .rePOS. gerzda la .spat.
That-named Mon Repos is-a-doghouse-of that-named Spot.

really means

Example 12.22. 

la .mon. .rePOS. zdani la .spat. noi gerku
That-named Mon Repos is-a-house-of that-named Spot, who is-a-dog.

since that is the interpretation we have given gerzda. But that in turn means

Example 12.23. 

la .mon. .rePOS. zdani la spat
That-named Mon Repos is-a-house-of that-named Spot,
noi ke'a gerku zo'e
who is-a-dog of-unspecified-breed.

Specifically,

Example 12.24. 

la .mon. .rePOS. zdani la .spat.
That-named Mon Repos is-a-house-of that-named Spot,
noi ke'a gerku la .sankt. .berNARD.
who is-a-dog-of-breed that-named St. Bernard.

and in that case, it makes little sense to say

Example 12.25. 

la .mon. .rePOS. gerzda la .spat. noi ke'a gerku
That-named Mon Repos is-a-doghouse-of that-named Spot, who is-a-dog
la .sankt. .berNARD. ku'o
of-breed that-named St. Bernard,
la .sankt. .berNARD.
of-breed that-named St. Bernard.

employing the over-ample place structure of Example 12.10. The dog breed is redundantly given both in the main selbri and in the relative clause, and (intuitively speaking) is repeated in the wrong place, since the dog breed is supplementary information about the dog, and not about the doghouse.

As a further example, take cakcinki , the lujvo for beetle , based on the tanru calku cinki , or shell-insect. The gismu place structures are:

Example 12.26. 

calku : ca1 is a shell/husk around ca2 made of ca3

cinki : ci1 is an insect/arthropod of species ci2


This example illustrates a cross-dependency between a place of one gismu and a place of the other. The ca3 place is dependent on ci1, because all insects (which fit into ci1) have shells made of chitin (which fits into ca3). Furthermore, ca1 is dependent on ci1 as well, because each insect has only a single shell. And since ca2 (the thing with the shell) is equivalent to ci1 (the insect), the place structure is

Example 12.27. 

ci1=ca2 is a beetle of species ci2


with not a single place of calku surviving independently!

(Note that there is nothing in this explanation that tells us just why cakcinki means beetle (member of Coleoptera), since all insects in their adult forms have chitin shells of some sort. The answer, which is in no way predictable, is that the shell is a prominent, highly noticeable feature of beetles in particular.)

What about the dependency of ci2 on ci1? After all, no beetle belongs to more than one species, so it would seem that the ci2 place of cakcinki could be eliminated on the same reasoning that allowed us to eliminate the g2 place of gerzda above. However, it is a rule that dependent places are not eliminated from a lujvo when they are derived from the tertau of its veljvo. This rule is imposed to keep the place structures of lujvo from drifting too far from the tertau place structure; if a place is necessary in the tertau, it's treated as necessary in the lujvo as well.

In general, the desire to remove places coming from the tertau is a sign that the veljvo selected is simply wrong. Different place structures imply different concepts, and the lujvo maker may be trying to shoehorn the wrong concept into the place structure of his or her choosing. This is obvious when someone tries to shoehorn a klama tertau into a litru or cliva concept, for example: these gismu differ in their number of arguments, and suppressing places of klama in a lujvo doesn't make any sense if the resulting modified place structure is that of litru or cliva.

Sometimes the dependency is between a single place of the tertau and the whole event described by the seltau. Such cases are discussed further in Section 12.13.

Unfortunately, not all dependent places in the seltau can be safely removed: some of them are necessary to interpreting the lujvo's meaning in context. It doesn't matter much to a doghouse what breed of dog inhabits it, but it can make quite a lot of difference to the construction of a school building what kind of school is in it! Music schools need auditoriums and recital rooms, elementary schools need playgrounds, and so on: therefore, the place structure of kuldi'u (from ckule dinju , and meaning school building) needs to be

Example 12.28. 

d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4


even though c3 and c4 are plainly dependent on c1. The other places of ckule , the location (c2) and operators (c5), don't seem to be necessary to the concept school building , and are dependent on c1 to boot, so they are omitted. Again, the need for case-by-case consideration of place structures is demonstrated.

12.7. Ordering lujvo places.

So far, we have concentrated on selecting the places to go into the place structure of a lujvo. However, this is only half the story. In using selbri in Lojban, it is important to remember the right order of the sumti. With lujvo, the need to attend to the order of sumti becomes critical: the set of places selected should be ordered in such a way that a reader unfamiliar with the lujvo should be able to tell which place is which.

If we aim to make understandable lujvo, then, we should make the order of places in the place structure follow some conventions. If this does not occur, very real ambiguities can turn up. Take for example the lujvo jdaselsku , meaning prayer. In the sentence

Example 12.29. 

di'e jdaselsku la .dong.
This-utterance is-a-prayer somehow-related-to that-named Dong.

we must be able to know if Dong is the person making the prayer, giving the meaning

Example 12.30. 

This is a prayer by Dong


or is the entity being prayed to, resulting in

Example 12.31. 

This is a prayer to Dong


We could resolve such problems on a case-by-case basis for each lujvo ( Section 12.14 discusses when this is actually necessary), but case-by-case resolution for run-of-the-mill lujvo makes the task of learning lujvo place structures unmanageable. People need consistent patterns to make sense of what they learn. Such patterns can be found across gismu place structures (see Section 12.16), and are even more necessary in lujvo place structures. Case-by-case consideration is still necessary; lujvo creation is a subtle art, after all. But it is helpful to take advantage of any available regularities.

We use two different ordering rules: one for symmetrical lujvo and one for asymmetrical ones. A symmetrical lujvo like balsoi (from Section 12.5) has the places of its tertau followed by whatever places of the seltau survive the elimination process. For balsoi , the surviving places of banli are b2 and b3, leading to the place structure:

Example 12.32. 

b1=s1 is a great soldier of army s2 in property b2 by standard b3


just what appears in Example 12.11. In fact, all place structures shown until now have been in the correct order by the conventions of this section, though the fact has been left tacit until now.

The motivation for this rule is the parallelism between the lujvo bridi-schema

Example 12.33. 

b1 balsoi s2 b2 b3
b1 is-a-great-soldier of-army-s2 in-property-b2 by-standard-b3

and the more or less equivalent bridi-schema

Example 12.34. 

b1 sonci s2 gi'e banli b2 b3
b1 is-a-soldier of-army-s2 and is-great in-property-b2 by-standard-b3

where gi'e is the Lojban word for and when placed between two partial bridi, as explained in Section 14.9.

Asymmetrical lujvo like gerzda , on the other hand, employ a different rule. The seltau places are inserted not at the end of the place structure, but rather immediately after the tertau place which is equivalent to the first place of the seltau. Consider dalmikce , meaning veterinarian : its veljvo is danlu mikce , or animal doctor. The place structures for those gismu are:

Example 12.35. 

danlu : d1 is an animal of species d2

mikce : m1 is a doctor to patient m2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4


and the lujvo place structure is:

Example 12.36. 

m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4


Since the shared place is m2=d1, the animal patient, the remaining seltau place d2 is inserted immediately after the shared place; then the remaining tertau places form the last two places of the lujvo.

12.8. lujvo with more than two parts.

The theory we have outlined so far is an account of lujvo with two parts. But often lujvo are made containing more than two parts. An example is bavlamdei , tomorrow : it is composed of the rafsi for future , adjacent , and day. How does the account we have given apply to lujvo like this?

The best way to approach such lujvo is to continue to classify them as based on binary tanru, the only difference being that the seltau or the tertau or both is itself a lujvo. So it is easiest to make sense of bavlamdei as having two components: bavla'i , next , and djedi. If we know or invent the lujvo place structure for the components, we can compose the new lujvo place structure in the usual way.

In this case, bavla'i is given the place structure

Example 12.37. 

b1=l1 is next after b2=l2


making it a symmetrical lujvo. We combine this with djedi , which has the place structure:

Example 12.38. 

duration d1 is d2 days long (default 1) by standard d3


While symmetrical lujvo normally put any trailing tertau places before any seltau places, the day standard is a much less important concept than the day the tomorrow follows, in the definition of bavlamdei. This is an example of how the guidelines presented for selecting and ordering lujvo places are just that, not laws that must be rigidly adhered to. In this case, we choose to rank places in order of relative importance. The resulting place structure is:

Example 12.39. 

d1=b1=l1 is a day following b2=l2, d2 days later (default 1) by standard d3


Here is another example of a multi-part lujvo: cladakyxa'i , meaning long-sword , a specific type of medieval weapon. The gismu place structures are:

Example 12.40. 

clani : c1 is long in direction c2 by standard c3

dakfu : d1 is a knife for cutting d2 with blade made of d3

xarci : xa1 is a weapon for use against xa2 by wielder xa3


Since cladakyxa'i is a symmetrical lujvo based on cladakfu xarci , and cladakfu is itself a symmetrical lujvo, we can do the necessary analyses all at once. Plainly c1 (the long thing), d1 (the knife), and xa1 (the weapon) are all the same. Likewise, the d2 place (the thing cut) is the same as the xa2 place (the target of the weapon), given that swords are used to cut victims. Finally, the c2 place (direction of length) is always along the sword blade in a longsword, by definition, and so is dependent on c1=d1=xa1. Adding on the places of the remaining gismu in right-to-left order we get:

Example 12.41. 

xa1=d1=c1 is a long-sword for use against xa2=d2 by wielder xa3, with a blade made of d3, length measured by standard c3.


If the last place sounds unimportant to you, notice that what counts legally as a sword , rather than just a knife , depends on the length of the blade (the legal limit varies in different jurisdictions). This fifth place of cladakyxa'i may not often be explicitly filled, but it is still useful on occasion. Because it is so seldom important, it is best that it be last.

12.9. Eliding SE rafsi from seltau

It is common to form lujvo that omit the rafsi based on cmavo of selma'o SE, as well as other cmavo rafsi. Doing so makes lujvo construction for common or useful constructions shorter. Since it puts more strain on the listener who has not heard the lujvo before, the shortness of the word should not necessarily outweigh ease in understanding, especially if the lujvo refers to a rare or unusual concept.

Consider as an example the lujvo ti'ifla , from the veljvo stidi flalu , and meaning bill, proposed law. The gismu place structures are:

Example 12.42. 

stidi : agent st1 suggests idea/action st2 to audience st3

flalu : f1 is a law specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4

by lawgiver f5


This lujvo does not fit any of our existing molds: it is the second seltau place, st2, that is equivalent to one of the tertau places, namely f1. However, if we understand ti'ifla as an abbreviation for the lujvo selti'ifla , then we get the first places of seltau and tertau lined up. The place structure of selti'i is:

Example 12.43. 

selti'i : idea/action se1 is suggested by agent se2 to audience se3


Here we can see that se1 (what is suggested) is equivalent to f1 (the law), and we get a normal symmetrical lujvo. The final place structure is:

Example 12.44. 

f1=se1 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester se2 to audience/lawgivers f5=se3


or, relabeling the places,

Example 12.45. 

f1=st2 is a bill specifying f2 for community f3 under conditions f4 by suggester st1 to audience/lawgivers f5=st3


where the last place (st3) is probably some sort of legislature.

Abbreviated lujvo like ti'ifla are more intuitive (for the lujvo-maker) than their more explicit counterparts like selti'ifla (as well as shorter). They don't require the coiner to sit down and work out the precise relation between the seltau and the tertau: he or she can just rattle off a rafsi pair. But should the lujvo get to the stage where a place structure needs to be worked out, then the precise relation does need to be specified. And in that case, such abbreviated lujvo form a trap in lujvo place ordering, since they obscure the most straightforward relation between the seltau and tertau. To give our lujvo-making guidelines as wide an application as possible, and to encourage analyzing the seltau-tertau relation in lujvo, lujvo like ti'ifla are given the place structure they would have with the appropriate SE added to the seltau.

Note that, with these lujvo, an interpretation requiring SE insertion is safe only if the alternatives are either implausible or unlikely to be needed as a lujvo. This may not always be the case, and Lojbanists should be aware of the risk of ambiguity.

12.10. Eliding SE rafsi from tertau

Eliding SE rafsi from tertau gets us into much more trouble. To understand why, recall that lujvo, following their veljvo, describe some type of whatever their tertau describe. Thus, posydji describes a type of djica , gerzda describes a type of zdani , and so on. What is certain is that gerzda does not describe a se zdani - it is not a word that could be used to describe an inhabitant such as a dog.

Now consider how we would translate the word blue-eyed. Let's tentatively translate this word as blakanla (from blanu kanla , meaning blue eye). But immediately we are in trouble: we cannot say

Example 12.46. 

la .djak. cu blakanla
That-named Jack is-a-blue-eye

because Jack is not an eye, kanla , but someone with an eye, se kanla. At best we can say

Example 12.47. 

la .djak. cu se blakanla
That-named Jack   is-the-bearer-of-blue-eyes

But look now at the place structure of blakanla : it is a symmetrical lujvo, so the place structure is:

Example 12.48. 

bl1=k1 is a blue eye of bl2=k2


We end up being most interested in talking about the second place, not the first (we talk much more of people than of their eyes), so se would almost always be required.

What is happening here is that we are translating the tertau wrongly, under the influence of English. The English suffix -eyed does not mean eye , but someone with an eye, which is selkanla.

Because we've got the wrong tertau (eliding a se that really should be there), any attempt to accommodate the resulting lujvo into our guidelines for place structure is fitting a square peg in a round hole. Since they can be so misleading, lujvo with SE rafsi elided from the tertau should be avoided in favor of their more explicit counterparts: in this case, blaselkanla.

12.11. Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo

People constructing lujvo usually want them to be as short as possible. To that end, they will discard any cmavo they regard as niceties. The first such cmavo to get thrown out are usually ke and ke'e , the cmavo used to structure and group tanru. We can usually get away with this, because the interpretation of the tertau with ke and ke'e missing is less plausible than that with the cmavo inserted, or because the distinction isn't really important.

For example, in bakrecpa'o , meaning beefsteak , the veljvo is

Example 12.49. 

[ke] bakni rectu [ke'e] panlo
( bovine meat ) slice

because of the usual Lojban left-grouping rule. But there doesn't seem to be much difference between that veljvo and

Example 12.50. 

bakni ke rectu panlo [ke'e]
bovine ( meat slice )

On the other hand, the lujvo zernerkla , meaning to sneak in , almost certainly was formed from the veljvo

Example 12.51. 

zekri ke nenri klama [ke'e]
crime ( inside go )

to go within, criminally


because the alternative,

Example 12.52. 

[ke] zekri nenri [ke'e] klama
( crime inside ) go

doesn't make much sense. (To go to the inside of a crime? To go into a place where it is criminal to be inside – an interpretation almost identical with Example 12.51 anyway?)

There are cases, however, where omitting a KE or KEhE rafsi can produce another lujvo, equally useful. For example, xaskemcakcurnu means oceanic shellfish , and has the veljvo

Example 12.53. 

xamsi ke calku curnu
ocean type-of ( shell worm )

( worm in Lojban refers to any invertebrate), but xasycakcurnu has the veljvo

Example 12.54. 

[ke] xamsi calku [ke'e] curnu
( ocean shell ) type-of worm

and might refer to the parasitic worms that infest clamshells.

Such misinterpretation is more likely than not in a lujvo starting with sel- (from se), nal- (from na'e) or tol- (from to'e): the scope of the rafsi will likeliest be presumed to be as narrow as possible, since all of these cmavo normally bind only to the following brivla or keke'e group. For that reason, if we want to modify an entire lujvo by putting se , na'e or to'e before it, it's better to leave the result as two words, or else to insert ke , than to just stick the SE or NAhE rafsi on.

It is all right to replace the phrase se klama with selkla , and the places of selkla are exactly those of se klama. But consider the related lujvo dzukla , meaning to walk to somewhere. It is a symmmetrical lujvo, derived from the veljvo cadzu klama as follows:

Example 12.55. 

cadzu : c1 walks on surface c2 using limbs c3

klama : k1 goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 using k5

dzukla : c1=k1 walks to k2 from k3 via route k4 using limbs k5=c3 on surface c2


We can swap the k1 and k2 places using se dzukla , but we cannot directly make se dzukla into seldzukla , which would represent the veljvo selcadzu klama and plausibly mean something like to go to a walking surface. Instead, we would need selkemdzukla , with an explicit rafsi for ke. Similarly, nalbrablo (from na'e barda bloti) means non-big boat , whereas na'e brablo means other than a big boat.

If the lujvo we want to modify with SE has a seltau already starting with a SE rafsi, we can take a shortcut. For instance, gekmau means happier than , while selgekmau means making people happier than, more enjoyable than, more of a 'se gleki' than. If something is less enjoyable than something else, we can say it is se selgekmau.

But we can also say it is selselgekmau. Two se cmavo in a row cancel each other ( se se gleki means the same as just gleki), so there would be no good reason to have selsel in a lujvo with that meaning. Instead, we can feel free to interpret selsel- as selkemsel-. The rafsi combinations terter- , velvel- and xelxel- work in the same way.

Other SE combinations like selter- , although they might conceivably mean se te , more than likely should be interpreted in the same way, namely as se ke te , since there is no need to re-order places in the way that se te provides. (See Section 9.4.)

12.12. Abstract lujvo

The cmavo of NU can participate in the construction of lujvo of a particularly simple and well-patterned kind. Consider that old standard example, klama :

Example 12.56. 

k1 comes/goes to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.


The selbri nu klama [kei] has only one place, the event-of-going, but the full five places exist implicitly between nu and kei , since a full bridi with all sumti may be placed there. In a lujvo, there is no room for such inside places, and consequently the lujvo nunkla ( nun- is the rafsi for nu), needs to have six places:

Example 12.57. 

nu1 is the event of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5.


Here the first place of nunklama is the first and only place of nu , and the other five places have been pushed down by one to occupy the second through the sixth places. Full information on nu , as well as the other abstractors mentioned in this section, is given in Chapter 11.

For those abstractors which have a second place as well, the standard convention is to place this place after, rather than before, the places of the brivla being abstracted. The place structure of nilkla , the lujvo derived from ni klama , is the imposing:

Example 12.58. 

ni1 is the amount of k1's coming/going to k2 from k3 via route k4 by means k5, measured on scale ni2.


It is not uncommon for abstractors to participate in the making of more complex lujvo as well. For example, nunsoidji , from the veljvo

Example 12.59. 

nu sonci kei djica
event-of being-a-soldier   desirer

has the place structure

Example 12.60. 

d1 desires the event of (s1 being a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3


where the d2 place has disappeared altogether, being replaced by the places of the seltau. As shown in Example 12.60 , the ordering follows this idea of replacement: the seltau places are inserted at the point where the omitted abstraction place exists in the tertau.

The lujvo nunsoidji is quite different from the ordinary asymmetric lujvo soidji , a soldier desirer , whose place structure is just

Example 12.61. 

d1 desires (a soldier of army s2) for purpose d3


A nunsoidji might be someone who is about to enlist, whereas a soidji might be a camp-follower.

One use of abstract lujvo is to eliminate the need for explicit kei in tanru: nunkalri gasnu means much the same as nu kalri kei gasnu , but is shorter. In addition, many English words ending in -hood are represented with nun- lujvo, and other words ending in -ness or -dom are often representable with kam- lujvo ( kam- is the rafsi for ka); kambla is blueness.

Even though the cmavo of NU are long-scope in nature, governing the whole following bridi, the NU rafsi should generally be used as short-scope modifiers, like the SE and NAhE rafsi discussed in Section 12.9.

There is also a rafsi for the cmavo jai , namely jax , which allows sentences like

Example 12.62. 

mi jai rinka le nu do morsi
I am-associated-with causing the event-of your death.

I cause your death.


explained in Section 11.10 , to be rendered with lujvo:

Example 12.63. 

mi jaxri'a le nu do morsi
I am-part-of-the-cause-of the event-of your dying.

In making a lujvo that contains jax- for a selbri that contains jai , the rule is to leave the fai place as a fai place of the lujvo; it does not participate in the regular lujvo place structure. (The use of fai is explained in Section 9.12 and Section 10.22.)

12.13. Implicit-abstraction lujvo

Eliding NU rafsi involves the same restrictions as eliding SE rafsi, plus additional ones. In general, NU rafsi should not be elided from the tertau, since that changes the kind of thing the lujvo is talking about from an abstraction to a concrete sumti. However, they may be elided from the seltau if no reasonable ambiguity would result.

A major difference, however, between SE elision and NU elision is that the former is a rather sparse process, providing a few convenient shortenings. Eliding nu , however, is extremely important in producing a class of lujvo called implicit-abstraction lujvo.

Let us make a detailed analysis of the lujvo nunctikezgau , meaning to feed. (If you think this lujvo is excessively longwinded, be patient.) The veljvo of nunctikezgau is nu citka kei gasnu. The relevant place structures are:

Example 12.64. 

nu : n1 is an event

citka : c1 eats c2

gasnu : g1 does action/is the agent of event g2


In accordance with the procedure for analyzing three-part lujvo given in Section 12.8 , we will first create an intermediate lujvo, nuncti , whose veljvo is nu citka [kei]. By the rules given in Section 12.12 , nuncti has the place structure

Example 12.65. 

n1 is the event of c1 eating c2


Now we can transform the veljvo of nunctikezgau into nuncti gasnu. The g2 place (what is brought about by the actor g1) obviously denotes the same thing as n1 (the event of eating). So we can eliminate g2 as redundant, leaving us with a tentative place structure of

Example 12.66. 

g1 is the actor in the event n1=g2 of c1 eating c2


But it is also possible to omit the n1 place itself! The n1 place describes the event brought about; an event in Lojban is described as a bridi, by a selbri and its sumti; the selbri is already known (it's the seltau), and the sumti are also already known (they're in the lujvo place structure). So n1 would not give us any information we didn't already know. In fact, the n1=g2 place is dependent on c1 and c2 jointly – it does not depend on either c1 or c2 by itself. Being dependent and derived from the seltau, it is omissible. So the final place structure of nunctikezgau is:

Example 12.67. 

g1 is the actor in the event of c1 eating c2


There is one further step that can be taken. As we have already seen with balsoi in Section 12.5 , the interpretation of lujvo is constrained by the semantics of gismu and of their sumti places. Now, any asymmetrical lujvo with gasnu as its tertau will involve an event abstraction either implicitly or explicitly, since that is how the g2 place of gasnu is defined.

Therefore, if we assume that nu is the type of abstraction one would expect to be a se gasnu , then the rafsi nun and kez in nunctikezgau are only telling us what we would already have guessed – that the seltau of a gasnu lujvo is an event. If we drop these rafsi out, and use instead the shorter lujvo ctigau , rejecting its symmetrical interpretation ( someone who both does and eats ; an eating doer), we can still deduce that the seltau refers to an event.

(You can't do an eater / gasnu lo citka , with the meaning of do as bring about an event ; so the seltau must refer to an event, nu citka. The English slang meanings of do someone , namely socialize with someone and have sex with someone , are not relevant to gasnu.)

So we can simply use ctigau with the same place structure as nunctikezgau :

Example 12.68. 

agent g1 causes c1 to eat c2

g1 feeds c2 to c1


This particular kind of asymmetrical lujvo, in which the seltau serves as the selbri of an abstraction which is a place of the tertau, is called an implicit-abstraction lujvo, because one deduces the presence of an abstraction which is unexpressed (implicit).

To give another example: the gismu basti , whose place structure is

Example 12.69. 

b1 replaces b2 in circumstances b3


can form the lujvo basygau , with the place structure:

Example 12.70. 

g1 (agent) replaces b1 with b2 in circumstances b3


where both basti and basygau are translated replace in English, but represent different relations: basti may be used with no mention of any agent doing the replacing.

In addition, gasnu -based lujvo can be built from what we would consider nouns or adjectives in English. In Lojban, everything is a predicate, so adjectives, nouns and verbs are all treated in the same way. This is consistent with the use of similar causative affixes in other languages. For example, the gismu litki , meaning liquid , with the place structure

Example 12.71. 

l1 is a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3


can give likygau , meaning to liquefy :

Example 12.72. 

g1 (agent) causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3.


While likygau correctly represents causes to be a liquid , a different lujvo based on galfi (meaning modify) may be more appropriate for causes to become a liquid. On the other hand, fetsygau is potentially confusing, because it could mean agent in the event of something becoming female (the implicit-abstraction interpretation) or simply female agent (the parallel interpretation), so using implicit-abstraction lujvo is always accompanied with some risk of being misunderstood.

Many other Lojban gismu have places for event abstractions, and therefore are good candidates for the tertau of an implicit-abstraction lujvo. For example, lujvo based on rinka , with its place structure

Example 12.73. 

event r1 causes event r2 to occur


are closely related to those based on gasnu. However, rinka is less generally useful than gasnu , because its r1 place is another event rather than a person: lo rinka is a cause, not a causer. Thus the place structure of likyri'a , a lujvo analogous to likygau , is

Example 12.74. 

event r1 causes l1 to be a quantity of liquid of composition l2 under conditions l3


and would be useful in translating sentences like The heat of the sun liquefied the block of ice.

Implicit-abstraction lujvo are a powerful means in the language of rendering quite verbose bridi into succinct and manageable concepts, and increasing the expressive power of the language.

12.14. Anomalous lujvo

Some lujvo that have been coined and actually employed in Lojban writing do not follow the guidelines expressed above, either because the places that are equivalent in the seltau and the tertau are in an unusual position, or because the seltau and tertau are related in a complex way, or both. An example of the first kind is jdaselsku , meaning prayer , which was mentioned in Section 12.7. The gismu places are:

Example 12.75. 

lijda : l1 is a religion with believers l2 and beliefs l3

cusku : c1 expresses text c2 to audience c3 in medium c4


and selsku , the tertau of jdaselsku , has the place structure

Example 12.76. 

s1 is a text expressed by s2 to audience s3 in medium s4


Now it is easy to see that the l2 and s2 places are equivalent: the believer in the religion (l2) is the one who expresses the prayer (s2). This is not one of the cases for which a place ordering rule has been given in Section 12.7 or Section 12.13 ; therefore, for lack of a better rule, we put the tertau places first and the remaining seltau places after them, leading to the place structure:

Example 12.77. 

s1 is a prayer expressed by s2=l2 to audience s3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1


The l3 place (the beliefs of the religion) is dependent on the l1 place (the religion) and so is omitted.

We could make this lujvo less messy by replacing it with se seljdasku , where seljdasku is a normal symmetrical lujvo with place structure:

Example 12.78. 

c1=l2 religiously expresses prayer c2 to audience c3 in medium s4 pertaining to religion l1


which, according to the rule expressed in Section 12.9 , can be further expressed as selseljdasku. However, there is no need for the ugly selsel- prefix just to get the rules right: jdaselsku is a reasonable, if anomalous, lujvo.

However, there is a further problem with jdaselsku , not resolvable by using seljdasku. No veljvo involving just the two gismu lijda and cusku can fully express the relationship implicit in prayer. A prayer is not just anything said by the adherents of a religion; nor is it even anything said by them acting as adherents of that religion. Rather, it is what they say under the authority of that religion, or using the religion as a medium, or following the rules associated with the religion, or something of the kind. So the veljvo is somewhat elliptical.

As a result, both seljdasku and jdaselsku belong to the second class of anomalous lujvo: the veljvo doesn't really supply all that the lujvo requires.

Another example of this kind of anomalous lujvo, drawn from the tanru lists in Section 5.14 , is lange'u , meaning sheepdog. Clearly a sheepdog is not a dog which is a sheep (the symmetrical interpretation is wrong), nor a dog of the sheep breed (the asymmetrical interpretation is wrong). Indeed, there is simply no overlap in the places of lanme and gerku at all. Rather, the lujvo refers to a dog which controls sheep flocks, a terlanme jitro gerku , the lujvo from which is terlantroge'u with place structure:

Example 12.79. 

g1=j1 is a dog that controls sheep flock l3=j2 made up of sheep l1 in activity j3 of dog breed g2


based on the gismu place structures

Example 12.80. 

lanme : l1 is a sheep of breed l2 belonging to flock l3

gerku : g1 is a dog of breed g2

jitro : j1 controls j2 in activity j3


Note that this lujvo is symmetrical between lantro (sheep-controller) and gerku , but lantro is itself an asymmetrical lujvo. The l2 place, the breed of sheep, is removed as dependent on l1. However, the lujvo lange'u is both shorter than terlantroge'u and sufficiently clear to warrant its use: its place structure, however, should be the same as that of the longer lujvo, for which lange'u can be understood as an abbreviation.

Another example is xanmi'e , to command by hand, to beckon. The component place structures are:

Example 12.81. 

xance : xa1 is the hand of xa2

minde : m1 gives commands to m2 to cause m3 to happen


The relation between the seltau and tertau is close enough for there to be an overlap: xa2 (the person with the hand) is the same as m1 (the one who commands). But interpreting xanmi'e as a symmetrical lujvo with an elided sel- in the seltau, as if from se xance minde , misses the point: the real relation expressed by the lujvo is not just one who commands and has a hand , but to command using the hand. The concept of using suggests the gismu pilno , with place structure

Example 12.82. 

p1 uses tool p2 for purpose p3


Some possible three-part veljvo are (depending on how strictly you want to constrain the veljvo)

Example 12.83. 

[ke] xance pilno [ke'e] minde
( hand user ) type-of commander

Example 12.84. 

[ke] minde xance [ke'e] pilno
( commander hand ) type-of user

or even

Example 12.85. 

minde ke xance pilno [ke'e]
commander type-of ( hand user )

which lead to the three different lujvo xanplimi'e , mi'erxanpli , and minkemxanpli respectively.

Does this make xanmi'e wrong? By no means. But it does mean that there is a latent component to the meaning of xanmi'e , the gismu pilno , which is not explicit in the veljvo. And it also means that, for a place structure derivation that actually makes sense, rather than being ad-hoc, the Lojbanist should probably go through a derivation for xancypliminde or one of the other possibilities that is analogous to the analysis of terlantroge'u above, even if he or she decides to stick with a shorter, more convenient form like xanmi'e. In addition, of course, the possibilities of elliptical lujvo increase their potential ambiguity enormously – an unavoidable fact which should be borne in mind.

12.15. Comparatives and superlatives

English has the concepts of comparative adjectives and superlative adjectives which can be formed from other adjectives, either by adding the suffixes -er and -est or by using the words more and most , respectively. The Lojbanic equivalents, which can be made from any brivla, are lujvo with the tertau zmadu , mleca , zenba , jdika , and traji. In order to make these lujvo regular and easy to make, certain special guidelines are imposed.

We will begin with lujvo based on zmadu and mleca , whose place structures are:

Example 12.86. 

zmadu : z1 is more than z2 in property z3 in quantity z4

mleca : m1 is less than m2 in property m3 in quantity m4


For example, the concept young is expressed by the gismu citno , with place structure

Example 12.87. 

citno : c1 is young


The comparative concept younger can be expressed by the lujvo citmau (based on the veljvo citno zmadu , meaning young more-than).

Example 12.88. 

mi citmau do lo nanca be li xa
I am-younger-than you by one-year multiplied-by the-number six.

I am six years younger than you.


The place structure for citmau is

Example 12.89. 

z1=c1 is younger than z2=c1 by amount z4


Similarly, in Lojban you can say:

Example 12.90. 

do citme'a mi lo nanca be li xa
You are-less-young-than me by one-year multiplied-by the-number six.

You are six years less young than me.


In English, more comparatives are easier to make and use than less comparatives, but in Lojban the two forms are equally easy.

Because of their much simpler place structure, lujvo ending in -mau and -me'a are in fact used much more frequently than zmadu and mleca themselves as selbri. It is highly unlikely for such lujvo to be construed as anything other than implicit-abstraction lujvo. But there is another type of ambiguity relevant to these lujvo, and which has to do with what is being compared.

For example, does nelcymau mean X likes Y more than X likes Z , or X likes Y more than Z likes Y ? Does klamau mean: X goes to Y more than to Z , X goes to Y more than Z does , X goes to Y from Z more than from W , or what?

We answer this concern by putting regularity above any considerations of concept usefulness: by convention, the two things being compared always fit into the first place of the seltau. In that way, each of the different possible interpretations can be expressed by SE-converting the seltau, and making the required place the new first place. As a result, we get the following comparative lujvo place structures:

Example 12.91. 

nelcymau : z1, more than z2, likes n2 by amount z4

selnelcymau : z1, more than z2, is liked by n1 in amount z4

klamau : z1, more than z2, goes to k2 from k3 via k4 by means of k5 by amount z4

selklamau : z1, more than z2, is gone to by k1 from k3 via k4 by means of k5 by amount z4

terklamau : z1, more than z2, is an origin point for destination k2 for k1's going via k4 by means of k5 by amount z4


(See Chapter 11 for the way in which this problem is resolved when lujvo aren't used.)

The ordering rule places the things being compared first, and the other seltau places following. Unfortunately the z4 place, which expresses by how much one entity exceeds the other, is displaced into a lujvo place whose number is different for each lujvo. For example, while nelcymau has z4 as its fourth place, klamau has it as its seventh place. In any sentence where a difficulty arises, this amount-place can be redundantly tagged with vemau (for zmadu) or veme'a (for mleca) to help make the speaker's intention clear.

It is important to realize that such comparative lujvo do not presuppose their seltau. Just as in English, saying someone is younger than someone else doesn't imply that they're young in the first place: an octogenarian, after all, is still younger than a nonagenarian. Rather, the 80-year-old has a greater ni citno than the 90-year-old. Similarly, a 5-year-old is older than a 1-year-old, but is not considered old by most standards.

There are some comparative concepts in which the se zmadu is difficult to specify. Typically, these involve comparisons implicitly made with a former state of affairs, where stating a z2 place explicitly would be problematic.

In such cases, it is best not to use zmadu and leave the comparison hanging, but to use instead the gismu zenba , meaning increase (and jdika , meaning decrease , in place of mleca). The gismu zenba was included in the language precisely in order to capture those notions of increase which zmadu can't quite cope with; in addition, we don't have to waste a place in lujvo or tanru on something that we'd never fill in with a value anyway. So we can translate I'm stronger now not as

Example 12.92. 

mi ca tsamau
I now am-stronger.

which implies that I'm currently stronger than somebody else (the elided occupant of the second or z2 place), but as

Example 12.93. 

mi ca tsaze'a

I increase in strength.


Finally, lujvo with a tertau of traji are used to build superlatives. The place structure of traji is

Example 12.94. 

t1 is superlative in property t2, being the t3 extremum (largest by default) of set t4


Consider the gismu xamgu , whose place structure is:

Example 12.95. 

xa1 is good for xa2 by standard xa3


The comparative form is xagmau , corresponding to English better , with a place structure (by the rules given above) of

Example 12.96. 

z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3 in amount z4


We would expect the place structure of xagrai , the superlative form, to somehow mirror that, given that comparatives and superlatives are comparable concepts, resulting in:

Example 12.97. 

xa1=t1 is the best of the set t4 for xa2 by standard xa3.


The t2 place in traji , normally filled by a property abstraction, is replaced by the seltau places, and the t3 place specifying the extremum of traji (whether the most or the least, that is) is presumed by default to be the most.

But the set against which the t1 place of traji is compared is not the t2 place (which would make the place structure of traji fully parallel to that of zmadu), but rather the t4 place. Nevertheless, by a special exception to the rules of place ordering, the t4 place of traji -based lujvo becomes the second place of the lujvo. Some examples:

Example 12.98. 

la .djudis. cu citrai lo'i lobypli

Judy is the youngest of all Lojbanists.


Example 12.99. 

la .ainctain. cu balrai lo'i skegunka

Einstein was the greatest of all scientists.


12.16. Notes on gismu place structures

Unlike the place structures of lujvo, the place structures of gismu were assigned in a far less systematic way through a detailed case-by-case analysis and repeated reviews with associated changes. (The gismu list is now baselined, so no further changes are contemplated.) Nevertheless, certain regularities were imposed both in the choice of places and in the ordering of places which may be helpful to the learner and the lujvo-maker, and which are therefore discussed here.

The choice of gismu places results from the varying outcome of four different pressures: brevity, convenience, metaphysical necessity, and regularity. (These are also to some extent the underlying factors in the lujvo place structures generated by the methods of this chapter.) The implications of each are roughly as follows:

  • Brevity tends to remove places: the fewer places a gismu has, the easier it is to learn, and the less specific it is. As mentioned in Section 12.4 , a brivla with fewer place structures is less specific, and generality is a virtue in gismu, because they must thoroughly blanket all of semantic space.

  • Convenience tends to increase the number of places: if a concept can be expressed as a place of some existing gismu, there is no need to make another gismu, a lujvo or a fu'ivla for it.

  • Metaphysical necessity can either increase or decrease places: it is a pressure tending to provide the right number of places. If something is part of the essential nature of a concept, then a place must be made for it; on the other hand, if instances of the concept need not have some property, then this pressure will tend to remove the place.

  • Regularity is a pressure which can also either increase or decrease places. If a gismu has a given place, then gismu which are semantically related to it are likely to have the place also.

Here are some examples of gismu place structures, with a discussion of the pressures operating on them:

Example 12.100. 

xekri : xe1 is black


Brevity was the most important goal here, reinforced by one interpretation of metaphysical necessity. There is no mention of color standards here, as many people have pointed out; like all color gismu, xekri is explicitly subjective. Objective color standards can be brought in by an appropriate BAI tag such as ci'u ( on scale ; see Section 9.6) or by making a lujvo.

Example 12.101. 

jbena : j1 is born to j2 at time j3 and location j4


The gismu jbena contains places for time and location, which few other gismu have: normally, the time and place at which something is done is supplied by a tense tag (see Chapter 10). However, providing these places makes le te jbena a simple term for birthday and le ve jbena for birthplace , so these places were provided despite their lack of metaphysical necessity.

Example 12.102. 

rinka : event r1 is the cause of event r2


The place structure of rinka does not have a place for the agent, the one who causes, as a result of the pressure toward metaphysical necessity. A cause-effect relationship does not have to include an agent: an event (such as snow melting in the mountains) may cause another event (such as the flooding of the Nile) without any human intervention or even knowledge.

Indeed, there is a general tendency to omit agent places from most gismu except for a few such as gasnu and zukte which are then used as tertau in order to restore the agent place when needed: see Section 12.13.

Example 12.103. 

cinfo c1 is a lion of species/breed c2


The c2 place of cinfo is provided as a result of the pressure toward regularity. All animal and plant gismu have such an x2 place; although there is in fact only one species of lion, and breeds of lion, though they exist, aren't all that important in talking about lions. The species/breed place must exist for such diversified species as dogs, and for general terms like cinki (insect), and are provided for all other animals and plants as a matter of regularity.

Less can be said about gismu place structure ordering, but some regularities are apparent. The places tend to appear in decreasing order of psychological saliency or importance. There is an implication within the place structure of klama , for example, that lo klama (the one going) will be talked about more often, and is thus more important, than lo se klama (the destination), which is in turn more important than lo xe klama (the means of transport).

Some specific tendencies (not really rules) can also be observed. For example, when there is an agent place, it tends to be the first place. Similarly, when a destination and an origin point are mentioned, the destination is always placed just before the origin point. Places such as under conditions and by standard , which often go unfilled, are moved to near the end of the place structure.

Chapter 13. Oooh! Arrgh! Ugh! Yecch! Attitudinal and emotional indicators

The picture for chapter 13

13.1. What are attitudinal indicators?

This chapter explains the various words that Lojban provides for expressing attitude and related notions. In natural languages, attitudes are usually expressed by the tone of voice when speaking, and (very imperfectly) by punctuation when writing. For example, the bare words

Example 13.1. 

John is coming.


can be made, through tone of voice, to express the speaker's feeling of happiness, pity, hope, surprise, or disbelief. These fine points of tone cannot be expressed in writing. Attitudes are also expressed with various sounds which show up in print as oddly spelled words, such as the Oooh! , Arrgh! , Ugh! , and Yecch! in the title. These are part of the English language; people born to other languages use a different set; yet you won't find any of these words in a dictionary.

In Lojban, everything that can be spoken can also be written. Therefore, these tones of voice must be represented by explicit words known as attitudinal indicators , or just attitudinals. This rule seems awkward and clunky to English-speakers at first, but is an essential part of the Lojbanic way of doing things.

The simplest way to use attitudinal indicators is to place them at the beginning of a text. In that case, they express the speaker's prevailing attitude. Here are some examples, correlated with the attitudes mentioned following Example 13.1 :

Example 13.2. 

.ui la djan klama
[Whee!] that-named John is-coming!

Example 13.3. 

.uu la djan klama
[Alas!] that-named John is-coming.

Example 13.4. 

.a'o la djan klama
[Hopefully] that-named John is-coming.

Example 13.5. 

.ue la djan klama
[Wow!] that-named John is-coming!

Example 13.6. 

.ianai la djan klama
[Nonsense!] that-named John is-coming.

The primary Lojban attitudinals are all the cmavo of the form VV or V'V: one of the few cases where cmavo have been classified solely by their form. There are 39 of these cmavo: all 25 possible vowel pairs of the form V'V, the four standard diphthongs ( .ai , .au , .ei , and .oi), and the ten more diphthongs that are permitted only in these attitudinal indicators and in Lojbanized names and borrowings ( .ia , .ie , .ii , .io , .iu , .ua , .ue , .ui , .uo , and .uu). Note that each of these cmavo has a period before it, marking the pause that is mandatory before every word beginning with a vowel. Attitudinals, like most of the other kinds of indicators described in this chapter, belong to selma'o UI.

Attitudinals can also be compound cmavo, of the types explained in Sections 4-8; Example 13.6 illustrates one such possibility, the compound attitudinal .ianai. In attitudinals, -nai indicates polar negation: the opposite of the simple attitudinal without the -nai. Thus, as you might suppose, .ia expresses belief, since .ianai expresses disbelief.

In addition to the attitudinals, there are other classes of indicators: intensity markers, emotion categories, attitudinal modifiers, observationals, and discursives. All of them are grammatically equivalent, which is why they are treated together in this chapter.

Every indicator behaves in more or less the same way with respect to the grammar of the rest of the language. In general, one or more indicators can be inserted at the beginning of an utterance or after any word. Indicators at the beginning apply to the whole utterance; otherwise, they apply to the word that they follow. More details can be found in Section 13.9.

Throughout this chapter, tables of indicators will be written in four columns. The first column is the cmavo itself. The second column is a corresponding English word, not necessarily a literal translation. The fourth column represents the opposite of the second column, and shows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when suffixed with -nai. The third column, which is sometimes omitted, indicates a neutral point between the second and fourth columns, and shows the approximate meaning of the attitudinal when it is suffixed with -cu'i. The cmavo cu'i belongs to selma'o CAI, and is explained more fully in Section 13.4.

One flaw that the English glosses are particularly subject to is that in English it is often difficult to distinguish between expressing your feelings and talking about them, particularly with the limited resource of the written word. So the gloss for .ui should not really be happiness but some sound or tone that expresses happiness. However, there aren't nearly enough of those that have unambiguous or obvious meanings in English to go around for all the many, many different emotions Lojban speakers can readily express.

Many indicators of CV'V form are loosely derived from specific gismu. The gismu should be thought of as a memory hook, not an equivalent of the cmavo. Such gismu are shown in this chapter between square brackets, thus: [gismu].

13.2. Pure emotion indicators

Attitudinals make no claim: they are expressions of attitude, not of facts or alleged facts. As a result, attitudinals themselves have no truth value, nor do they directly affect the truth value of a bridi that they modify. However, since emotional attitudes are carried in your mind, they reflect reactions to that version of the world that the mind is thinking about; this is seldom identical with the real world. At times, we are thinking about our idealized version of the real world; at other times we are thinking about a potential world that might or might not ever exist.

Therefore, there are two groups of attitudinals in Lojban. The pure emotion indicators express the way the speaker is feeling, without direct reference to what else is said. These indicators comprise the attitudinals which begin with u or o and many of those beginning with i.

The cmavo beginning with u are simple emotions, which represent the speaker's reaction to the world as it is, or as it is perceived to be.

.ua

discovery

confusion

.u'a

gain

loss

.ue

surprise

no surprise

expectation

.u'e

wonder

commonplace

.ui

happiness

unhappiness

.u'i

amusement

weariness

.uo

completion

incompleteness

.u'o

courage

timidity

cowardice

.uu

pity

cruelty

.u'u

repentance

lack of regret

innocence

Here are some typical uses of the u attitudinals:

Example 13.7. 

.ua mi facki fi le mi mapku
[Eureka!] I found-out about the of-me hat.

[Eureka!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the discovery of the hat]


Example 13.8. 

.u'a mi facki fi le mi mapku
[Gain!] I found-out about the of-me hat.

[Gain!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the obtaining of the hat]


Example 13.9. 

.ui mi facki fi le mi mapku
[Yay!] I found-out about the of-me hat.

[Yay!] I found my hat! [emphasizes the feeling of happiness]


Example 13.10. 

.uo mi facki fi le mi mapku
[At-last!] I found-out about the of-me hat.

[At last!] I found my hat! [emphasizes that the finding is complete]


Example 13.11. 

.uu do cortu
[Pity!] you feel-pain.

[Pity!] you feel pain. [expresses speaker's sympathy]


Example 13.12. 

.u'u do cortu
[Repentance!] you feel-pain.

[Repentance!] you feel pain. [expresses that speaker feels guilty]


In Example 13.10 , note that the attitudinal .uo is translated by an English non-attitudinal phrase: At last! It is common for the English equivalents of Lojban attitudinals to be short phrases of this sort, with more or less normal grammar, but actually expressions of emotion.

In particular, both .uu and .u'u can be translated into English as I'm sorry ; the difference between these two attitudes frequently causes confusion among English-speakers who use this phrase, leading to responses like Why are you sorry? It's not your fault!

It is important to realize that .uu , and indeed all attitudinals, are meant to be used sincerely, not ironically. In English, the exclamation Pity! is just as likely to be ironically intended, but this usage does not extend to Lojban. Lying with attitudinals is (normally) as inappropriate to Lojban discourse as any other kind of lying: perhaps worse, because misunderstood emotions can cause even greater problems than misunderstood statements.

The following examples display the effects of nai and cu'i when suffixed to an attitudinal:

Example 13.13. 

.ue la .djan. klama
[Surprise!] that-named John comes.

Example 13.14. 

.uecu'i la .djan. klama
[Ho-hum.] that-named John comes.

Example 13.15. 

.uenai la .djan. klama
[Expected!] that-named John comes.

In Example 13.15 , John's coming has been anticipated by the speaker. In Example 13.13 and Example 13.14 , no such anticipation has been made, but in Example 13.14 the lack-of-anticipation goes no further – in Example 13.13 , it amounts to actual surprise.

It is not possible to firmly distinguish the pure emotion words beginning with o or i from those beginning with u , but in general they represent more complex, more ambivalent, or more difficult emotions.

.o'a

pride

modesty

shame

.o'e

closeness

detachment

distance

.oi

complaint/pain

doing OK

pleasure

.o'i

caution

boldness

rashness

.o'o

patience

mere tolerance

anger

.o'u

relaxation

composure

stress

Here are some examples:

Example 13.16. 

.oi la .djan. klama
[Complaint!] that-named John is-coming.

Here the speaker is distressed or discomfited over John's coming. The word .oi is derived from the Yiddish word oy of similar meaning. It is the only cmavo with a Yiddish origin.

Example 13.17. 

.o'onai la .djan. klama
[Anger!] that-named John is-coming!

Here the speaker feels anger over John's coming.

Example 13.18. 

.o'i la .djan. klama
[Beware!] that-named John is-coming.

Here there is a sense of danger in John's arrival.

Example 13.19. 

.o'ecu'i la .djan. klama
[Detachment!] that-named John is-coming.

Example 13.20. 

.o'u la .djan. klama
[Phew!] that-named John is-coming.

In Example 13.19 and Example 13.20 , John's arrival is no problem: in the former example, the speaker feels emotional distance from the situation; in the latter example, John's coming is actually a relief of some kind.

The pure emotion indicators beginning with i are those which could not be fitted into the u or o groups because there was a lack of room, so they are a mixed lot. .ia , .i'a , .ie , and .i'e do not appear here, as they belong in Section 13.3 instead.

.ii

fear

nervousness

security

.i'i

togetherness

privacy

.io

respect

disrespect

.i'o

appreciation

envy

.iu

love

no love lost

hatred

.i'u

familiarity

mystery

Here are some examples:

Example 13.21. 

.ii smacu
[Fear!] [Observative:]-a-mouse!

Eek! A mouse!


Example 13.22. 

la .djan. .iu klama
That-named John [love!] is-coming.

Example 13.23. 

la .djan. .ionai klama
That-named John [disrespect!] is-coming.

Example 13.21 shows an attitude-colored observative; the attitudinal modifies the situation described by the observative, namely the mouse that is causing the emotion. Lojban-speaking toddlers, if there ever are any, will probably use sentences like Example 13.21 a lot.

Example 13.22 and Example 13.23 use attitudinals that follow la .djan. rather than being at the beginning of the sentence. This form means that the attitude is attached to John rather than the event of his coming; the speaker loves or disrespects John specifically. Compare:

Example 13.24. 

la .djan. klama .iu
That-named John is-coming [love!]

where it is specifically the coming of John that inspires the feeling.

Example 13.23 is a compact way of swearing at John: you could translate it as That good-for-nothing John is coming.

13.3. Propositional attitude indicators

As mentioned at the beginning of Section 13.2 , attitudinals may be divided into two groups, the pure emotion indicators explained in that section, and a contrasting group which may be called the propositional attitude indicators. These indicators establish an internal, hypothetical world which the speaker is reacting to, distinct from the world as it really is. Thus we may be expressing our attitude towards what the world would be like if ... , or more directly stating our attitude towards making the potential world a reality.

In general, the bridi paraphrases of pure emotions look (in English) something like I'm going to the market, and I'm happy about it. The emotion is present with the subject of the primary claim, but is logically independent of it. Propositional attitudes, though, look more like I intend to go to the market , where the main claim is logically subordinate to the intention: I am not claiming that I am actually going to the market, but merely that I intend to.

There is no sharp distinction between attitudinals beginning with a and those beginning with e ; however, the original intent (not entirely realized due to the need to cram too many attitudes into too little space) was to make the members of the a -series the purer, more attitudinal realizers of a potential world, while the members of the e -series were more ambivalent or complex about the speaker's intention with regard to the predication. The relationship between the a -series and the e -series is similar to that between the u -series and the o -series, respectively. A few propositional attitude indicators overflowed into the i -series as well.

In fact, the entire distinction between pure emotions and propositional attitudes is itself a bit shaky: .u'u can be seen as a propositional attitude indicator meaning I regret that ... , and .a'e (discussed below) can be seen as a pure emotion meaning I'm awake/aware. The division of the attitudinals into pure-emotion and propositional-attitude classes in this chapter is mostly by way of explanation; it is not intended to permit firm rulings on specific points. Attitudinals are the part of Lojban most distant from the logical language aspect.

Here is the list of propositional attitude indicators grouped by initial letter, starting with those beginning with a :

.a'a

attentive

inattentive

avoiding

.a'e

alertness

exhaustion

.ai

intent

indecision

refusal

.a'i

effort

no real effort

repose

.a'o

hope

despair

.au

desire

indifference

reluctance

.a'u

interest

no interest

repulsion

Some examples (of a parental kind):

Example 13.25. 

.a'a do zgana le veltivni
[attentive] you observe the television-receiver.

I'm noticing that you are watching the TV.


Example 13.26. 

.a'enai do ranji bacru
[exhaustion] you continuously utter.

I'm worn out by your continuous talking.


Example 13.27. 

.ai mi muvgau do le ckana
[intent] I transfer you to-the bed.

I'm putting you to bed.


Example 13.28. 

.a'i mi ba gasnu le nu do cikna binxo
[effort] I [future] am-the-actor-in the event-of you awake-ly become.

It'll be hard for me to wake you up.


Example 13.29. 

.a'o mi kanryze'a ca le bavlamdei
[hope] I am-health-increased at-time the future-adjacent-day.

I hope I feel better tomorrow!


Example 13.30. 

.au mi sipna
[desire] I sleep.

I want to sleep.


Example 13.31. 

.a'ucu'i do pante
[no-interest] you complain.

I have no interest in your complaints.


(In a real-life situation, Example 13.25 through Example 13.31 would also be decorated by various pure emotion indicators, certainly including .oicai , but probably also .iucai.)

Splitting off the attitude into an indicator allows the regular bridi grammar to do what it does best: express the relationships between concepts that are intended, desired, hoped for, or whatever. Rephrasing these examples to express the attitude as the main selbri would make for unacceptably heavyweight grammar.

Here are the propositional attitude indicators beginning with e , which stand roughly in the relation to those beginning with a as the pure-emotion indicators beginning with o do to those beginning with u - they are more complex or difficult:

.e'a

permission

prohibition

.e'e

competence

incompetence

.ei

obligation

freedom

.e'i

constraint

independence

resistance to constraint

.e'o

request

negative request

.e'u

suggestion

no suggestion

warning

More examples (after a good night's sleep):

Example 13.32. 

.e'a do sazri le karce
[permission] you drive the car.

Sure, you can drive the car.


Example 13.33. 

.e'e mi lifri tu'a do
[competence] I experience something-related-to you.

I feel up to dealing with you.


Example 13.34. 

.ei mi tisygau le karce ctilyvau
[obligation] I fill the car-type-of petroleum-container.

I should fill the car's gas tank.


Example 13.35. 

.e'o ko ko kurji
[request] you-imperative of-you-imperative take-care.

Please take care of yourself!


Example 13.36. 

.e'u do klama le panka
[suggestion] you go to-the park.

I suggest going to the park.


Finally, the propositional attitude indicators beginning with i , which are the overflow from the other sets:

.ia

belief

skepticism

disbelief

.i'a

acceptance

blame

.ie

agreement

disagreement

.i'e

approval

non-approval

disapproval

Still more examples (much, much later):

Example 13.37. 

.ianai do pu pensi le nu tcica mi
[disbelief] you [past] think the event-of deceiving me.

I can't believe you thought you could fool me.


Example 13.38. 

do .i'anai na xruti do le zdani
You [blame] did-not return you to-the house.

I blame you for not coming home.


Example 13.39. 

.ie mi na cusku lu'e
[agreement] I did-not express a-symbol-for
le tcika be le nu xruti
the time-of-day of the event-of return.

It's true I didn't tell you when to come back.


Example 13.40. 

.i'enai do .i'e zukte
[disapproval] you [approval] act.

I don't approve of what you did, but I approve of you.


Example 13.40 illustrates the use of a propositional attitude indicator, .i'e , in both the usual sense (at the beginning of the bridi) and as a pure emotion (attached to do). The event expressed by the main bridi is disapproved of by the speaker, but the referent of the sumti in the x1 place (namely the listener) is approved of.

To indicate that an attitudinal discussed in this section is not meant to indicate a propositional attitude, the simplest expedient is to split the attitudinal off into a separate sentence. Thus, a version of Example 13.32 which actually claimed that the listener was or would be driving the car might be:

Example 13.41. 

do sazri le karce .i .e'a
You drive the car. [Permission].

You're driving (or will drive) the car, and that's fine.


13.4. Attitudes as scales

In Lojban, all emotions and attitudes are scales. These scales run from some extreme value (which we'll call positive) to an opposite extreme (which we'll call negative). In the tables above, we have seen three points on the scale: positive , neutral, and negative. The terms positive and negative are put into quotation marks because they are loaded words when applied to emotions, and the attitudinal system reflects this loading, which is a known cultural bias. Only two of the positive words, namely .ii (fear) and .oi (pain/complaint), represent emotions commonly thought of as less virtuous in most cases than their negative counterparts. But these two were felt to be instinctive, distinct, and very powerful emotions that needed to be expressible in a monosyllable when necessary, while their counterparts are less commonly expressed.

(Why the overt bias? Because there are a lot of attitudinals and they will be difficult to learn as an entire set. By aligning our scales arbitrarily, we give the monosyllable nai a useful meaning and make it easier for a novice to recognize at least the positive or negative alignment of an indicator, if not the specific word. Other choices considered were random orientation, which would have unknown biases and be difficult to learn, and orientation based on our guesses as to which scale orientations made the most frequent usages shorter, which would be biased in favor of American perceptions of usefulness. If bias must exist in our indicator set, it might as well be a known bias that eases learning, and in addition might as well favor a harmonious and positive world-view.)

In fact, though, each emotional scale has seven positions defined, three positive ones (shown below on the left), three negative ones (shown below on the right), and a neutral one indicating that no particular attitude on this scale is felt. The following chart indicates the seven positions of the scale and the associated cmavo. All of these cmavo, except nai , are in selma'o CAI.

cai
carmi
sai
tsali
ru'e
ruble
cu'i
cumki
nairu'e
-
naisai
-
naicai
-

A scalar attitude is expressed by using the attitudinal word, and then following it by the desired scalar intensity. The bias creeps in because the negative emotions take the extra syllable nai to indicate their negative position on the axis, and thus require a bit more effort to express.

Much of this system is optional. You can express an attitude without a scale indicator, if you don't want to stop and think about how strongly you feel. Indeed, for most attitudinals, we've found that either no scalar value is used, or cai is used to indicate especially high intensity. Less often, ru'e is used for a recognizably weak intensity, and cu'i is used in response to the attitudinal question pei (see Section 13.10) to indicate that the emotion is not felt.

The following shows the variations resulting from intensity variation:

Example 13.42. 

.ei
[obligation]

I ought to

(a non-specific obligation)


Example 13.43. 

.eicai
[obligation-maximal]

I shall/must

(an intense obligation or requirement, possibly a formal one)


Example 13.44. 

.eisai
[obligation-strong]

I should

(a strong obligation or necessity, possibly an implied but not formal requirement)


Example 13.45. 

.eiru'e
[obligation-weak]

I might

(a weak obligation – in English often mixed with permission and desire)


Example 13.46. 

.eicu'i
[obligation-neutral]

No matter

(no particular obligation)


Example 13.47. 

.einai
[obligation-not]

I need not

(a non-obligation)


You can also utter a scale indicator without a specific emotion. This is often used in the language: in order to emphasize a point about which you feel strongly, you mark what you are saying with the scale indicator cai. You could also indicate that you don't care using cu'i by itself.

13.5. The space of emotions

Each of the attitude scales constitutes an axis in a multi-dimensional space. In effect, given our total so far of 39 scales, we have a 39-dimensional space. At any given time, our emotions and attitudes are represented by a point in this 39-dimensional space, with the intensity indicators serving as coordinates along each dimension. A complete attitudinal inventory, should one decide to express it, would consist of reading off each of the scale values for each of the emotions, with the vector sum serving as a distinct single point, which is our attitude.

Now no one is going to ever utter a string of 100-odd attitudinals to express their emotions. If asked, we normally do not recognize more than one or two emotions at a time – usually the ones that are strongest or which most recently changed in some significant way. But the scale system provides some useful insights into a possible theory of emotion (which might be testable using Lojban), and incidentally explains how Lojbanists express compound emotions when they do recognize them.

The existence of 39 scales highlights the complexity of emotion. We also aren't bound to the 39. There are modifiers described in Section 13.6 that multiply the set of scales by an order of magnitude. You can also have mixed feelings on a scale, which might be expressed by cu'i , but could also be expressed by using both the positive and negative scale emotions at once. One expression of fortitude might be .ii.iinai - fear coupled with security.

Uttering one or more attitudinals to express an emotion reflects several things. We will tend to utter emotions in their immediate order of importance to us. We feel several emotions at once, and our expression reflects these emotions simultaneously, although their order of importance to us is also revealing – of our attitude towards our attitude, so to speak. There is little analysis necessary; for those emotions you feel, you express them; the vector sum naturally expresses the result. This is vital to their nature as attitudinals – if you had to stop and think about them, or to worry about grammar, they wouldn't be emotions but rationalizations.

People have proposed that attitudinals be expressed as bridi just like everything else; but emotions aren't logical or analytical – saying I'm awed is not the same as saying Wow!!!. The Lojban system is intended to give the effects of an analytical system without the thought involved. Thus, you can simply feel in Lojban.

A nice feature of this design is that you can be simple or complex, and the system works the same way. The most immediate benefit is in learning. You only need to learn a couple of the scale words and a couple of attitude words, and you're ready to express your emotions Lojbanically. As you learn more, you can express your emotions more thoroughly and more precisely, but even a limited vocabulary offers a broad range of expression.

13.6. Emotional categories

The Lojban attitudinal system was designed by starting with a long list of English emotion words, far too many to fit into the 39 available VV-form cmavo. To keep the number of cmavo limited, the emotion words in the list were grouped together by common features: each group was then assigned a separate cmavo. This was like making tanru in reverse, and the result is a collection of indicators that can be combined, like tanru, to express very complex emotions. Some examples in a moment.

The most significant common feature we identified was that the emotional words on the list could easily be broken down into six major groups, each of which was assigned its own cmavo:

ro'a

social

asocial

antisocial

ro'e

mental

mindless

ro'i

emotional

denying emotion

ro'o

physical

denying physical

ro'u

sexual

sexual abstinence

re'e

spiritual

secular

sacrilegious

Using these, we were able to assign .o'u to mark a scale of what we might call generalized comfort. When you are comfortable, relaxed, satisfied, you express comfort with .o'u , possibly followed by a scale indicator to indicate how comfortable you are. The six cmavo given above allow you to turn this scale into six separate ones, should you wish.

For example, embarrassment is a social discomfort, expressible as .o'unairo'a. Some emotions that we label stress in English are expressed in Lojban with .o'unairo'i. Physical distress can be expressed with .o'unairo'o , which makes a nice groan if you say it with feeling. Mental discomfort might be what you feel when you don't know the answer to the test question, but feel that you should. Most adults can recall some instance where we felt sexual discomfort, o'unairo'u. Spiritual discomfort, o'unaire'e , might be felt by a church-goer who has wandered into the wrong kind of religious building.

Most of the time when expressing an emotion, you won't categorize it with these words. Emotional expressions should be quickly expressible without having to think about them. However, we sometimes have mixed emotions within this set, as for example emotional discomfort coupled with physical comfort or vice versa.

Coupling these six words with our 39 attitude scales, each of which has a positive and negative side, already gives you far more emotional expression words than we have emotional labels in English. Thus, you'll never see a Lojban-English emotional dictionary that covers all the Lojban possibilities. Some may be useless, but others convey emotions that probably never had a word for them before, though many have felt them ( .eiro'u , for example – look it up).

You can use scale markers and nai on these six category words, and you can also use category words without specifying the emotion. Thus, I'm trying to concentrate could be expressed simply as ro'e , and if you are feeling anti-social in some non-specific way, ro'anai will express it.

There is a mnemonic device for the six emotion categories, based on moving your arms about. In the following table, your hands begin above your head and move down your body in sequence.

ro'a

hands above head

social

ro'e

hands on head

intellectual

ro'i

hands on heart

emotional

ro'o

hands on belly

physical

ro'u

hands on groin

sexual

re'e

hands moving around

spiritual

The implicit metaphors heart for emotional and belly for physical are not really Lojbanic, but they work fine for English-speakers.

13.7. Attitudinal modifiers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ga'i

[galtu]

hauteur; rank

equal rank

meekness; lack of rank

le'o

aggressive

passive

defensive

vu'e

[vrude]

virtue ( zabna)

sin ( mabla)

se'i

[sevzi]

self-orientation

other-orientation

ri'e

[zifre]

release

restraint

control

fu'i

[frili]

with help; easily

without help

with opposition; with difficulty

be'u

lack/need

presence/satisfaction

satiation

se'a

[sevzi]

self-sufficiency

dependency

It turned out that, once we had devised the six emotion categories, we also recognized some other commonalities among emotions. These tended to fit nicely on scales of their own, but generally tend not to be thought of as separate emotions. Some of these are self-explanatory, some need to be placed in context. Some of these tend to go well with only a few of the attitudinals, others go with nearly all of them. To really understand these modifiers, try to use them in combination with one or two of the attitudinals found in Section 13.2 and Section 13.3 , and see what emotional pictures you can build:

The cmavo ga'i expresses the scale used to indicate condescension or polite deference; it is not respect in general, which is .io. Whatever it is attached to is marked as being below (for ga'i) or above (for ga'inai) the speaker's rank or social position. Note that it is always the referent, not the speaker or listener, who is so marked: in order to mark the listener, the listener must appear in the sentence, as with doi ga'inai , which can be appended to a statement addressed to a social superior.

Example 13.48. 

ko ga'inai nenri klama le mi zdani
You-imperative [low-rank!] enter-type-of come-to the of-me house.

I would be honored if you would enter my residence.


Note that imperatives in Lojban need not be imperious! Corresponding examples with ga'icu'i and ga'i :

Example 13.49. 

ko ga'icu'i nenri klama le mi zdani
You-imperative [equal-rank!] enter-type-of come-to the of-me house.

Come on in to my place.


Example 13.50. 

ko ga'i nenri klama le mi zdani
You-imperative [high-rank!] enter-type-of come-to the of-me house.

You! Get inside!


Since ga'i expresses the relative rank of the speaker and the referent, it does not make much sense to attach it to mi , unless the speaker is using mi to refer to a group (as in English we), or a past or future version of himself with a different rank.

It is also possible to attach ga'i to a whole bridi, in which case it expresses the speaker's superiority to the event the bridi refers to:

Example 13.51. 

ga'i le xarju pu citka
[High-rank!] the pig [past] eats.

The pig ate (which is an event beneath my notice).


When used without being attached to any bridi, ga'i expresses the speaker's superiority to things in general, which may represent an absolute social rank: ga'icai is an appropriate opening word for an emperor's address from the throne.

The cmavo le'o represents the scale of aggressiveness. We seldom overtly recognize that we are feeling aggressive or defensive, but perhaps in counseling sessions, a psychologist might encourage someone to express these feelings on this scale. And football teams could be urged on by their coach using ro'ole'o. le'o is also useful in threats as an alternative to o'onai , which expresses anger.

The cmavo vu'e represents ethical virtue or its absence. An excess of almost any emotion is usually somewhat sinful in the eyes of most ethical systems. On the other hand, we often feel virtuous about our feelings – what we call righteous indignation might be o'onaivu'e. Note that this is distinct from lack of guilt: .u'unai.

The cmavo se'i expresses the difference between selfishness and generosity, for example (in combination with .au):

Example 13.52. 

.ause'i
[desire-self]

I want it!


Example 13.53. 

.ause'inai
[desire-other]

I want you to have it!


In both cases, the English it is vague, reflecting the absence of a bridi. Example 13.52 and Example 13.53 are pure expressions of attitude. Analogously, .uuse'i is self-pity, whereas .uuse'inai is pity for someone else.

The modifier ri'e indicates emotional release versus emotional control. I will not let him know how angry I am , you say to yourself before entering the room. The Lojban is much shorter:

Example 13.54. 

.o'onai ri'enai
[anger] [control]

On the other hand, ri'e can be used by itself to signal an emotional outburst.

The cmavo fu'i may express a reason for feeling the way we do, as opposed to a feeling in itself; but it is a reason that is more emotionally determined than most. For example, it could show the difference between the mental discomfort mentioned in Section 13.6 when it is felt on an easy test, as opposed to on a hard test. When someone gives you a back massage, you could use .o'ufu'i to show appreciation for the assistance in your comfort.

The cmavo be'u expresses, roughly speaking, whether the emotion it modifies is in response to something you don't have enough of, something you have enough of, or something you have too much of. It is more or less the attitudinal equivalent of the subjective quantifier cmavo mo'a , rau , and du'e (these belong to selma'o PA, and are discussed in Section 18.8). For example,

Example 13.55. 

.uiro'obe'unai
[Yay-physical-enough!]

might be something you say after a large meal which you enjoyed.

Like all modifiers, be'u can be used alone:

Example 13.56. 

le cukta be'u cu zvati ma
The book [Needed!] is-at-location [what-sumti?]

Where's the book? – I need it!


Lastly, the modifier se'a shows whether the feeling is associated with self-sufficiency or with dependence on others.

Example 13.57. 

.e'ese'a
[I-can-self-sufficient!]

I can do it all by myself!


is something a Lojban-speaking child might say. On the other hand,

Example 13.58. 

.e'ese'anai
[I-can-dependent]

I can do it if you help me.


from the same child would indicate a (hopefully temporary) loss of self-confidence. It is also possible to negate the .e'e in Example 13.54 and Example 13.55 , leading to:

Example 13.59. 

.e'enaise'a
[I-can't-self-sufficient]

I can't do it if you insist on helping me!


and

Example 13.60. 

.e'enaise'anai
[I-can't-dependent]

I can't do it by myself!


Some of the emotional expressions may seem too complicated to use. They might be for most circumstances. It is likely that most combinations will never get used. But if one person uses one of these expressions, another person can understand (as unambiguously as the expresser intends) what emotion is being expressed. Most probably as the system becomes well-known and internalized by Lojban-speakers, particular attitudinal combinations will come to be standard expressions (if not cliches) of emotion.

13.8. Compound indicators

The grammar of indicators is quite simple; almost all facets are optional. You can combine indicators in any order, and they are still grammatical. The presumed denotation is additive; thus the whole is the sum of the parts regardless of the order expressed, although the first expressed is presumed most important to the speaker. Every possible string of UI cmavo has some meaning.

Within a string of indicators, there will be conventions of interpretation which amount to a kind of second-order grammar. Each of the modifier words is presumed to modify an indicator to the left, if there is one. (There is an unspecified emotion word, ge'e , reserved to ensure that if you want to express a modifier without a root emotion, it doesn't attach to and modify a previous but distinct emotional expression.)

For example, .ieru'e expresses a weak positive value on the scale of agreement: the speaker agrees (presumably with the listener or with something else just stated), but with the least possible degree of intensity. But .ie ge'eru'e expresses agreement (at an unspecified level), followed by some other unstated emotion which is felt at a weak level. A rough English equivalent of .ie ge'eru'e might be I agree, but ... where the but is left hanging. (Again, attitudes aren't always expressed in English by English attitudinals.)

A scale variable similarly modifies the previous emotion word. You put the scale word for a root emotion word before a modifier, since the latter can have its own scale word. This merely maximizes the amount of information expressible. For example, .oinaicu'i ro'ucai expresses a feeling midway between pain ( .oi) and pleasure ( .oinai) which is intensely sexual ( ro'u) in nature.

The cmavo nai is the most tightly bound modifier in the language: it always negates exactly one word – the preceding one. Of all the words used in indicator constructs, nai is the only one with any meaning outside the indicator system. If you try to put an indicator between a non-indicator cmavo and its nai negator, the nai will end up negating the last word of the indicator. The result, though unambiguous, is not what you want. For example,

Example 13.61. 

mi .e .ui nai do
I and [Yay!] [Not!] you.

means I and (unfortunately) you , whereas

Example 13.62. 

mi .e nai .ui do
I and [Not!] [Yay!] you.

means I but (fortunately) not you. Attitudinal nai expresses a scalar negation , a concept explained in Section 15.3 ; since every attitudinal word implies exactly one scale, the effect of nai on each should be obvious.

Thus, the complete internal grammar of UI is as follows, with each listed part optionally present or absent without affecting grammaticality, though it obviously would affect meaning.

attitudinal nai intensity-word nai modifier nai intensity-word nai (possiblyrepeated)

ge'e , the non-specific emotion word, functions as an attitudinal. If multiple attitudes are being expressed at once, then in the 2nd or greater position, either ge'e or a VV word must be used to prevent any modifiers from modifying the previous attitudinal.

13.9. The uses of indicators

The behavior of indicators in the outside grammar is nearly as simple as their internal structure. Indicator groupings are identified immediately after the metalinguistic erasers si , sa , and su and some, though not all, kinds of quotations. The details of such interactions are discussed in Section 19.16.

A group of indicators may appear anywhere that a single indicator may, except in those few situations (as in zo quotation, explained in Section 19.10) where compound cmavo may not be used.

At the beginning of a text, indicators modify everything following them indefinitely: such a usage is taken as a raw emotional expression, and we normally don't turn off our emotions when we start and stop sentences. In every other place in an utterance, the indicator (or group) attaches to the word immediately to its left, and indicates that the attitude is being expressed concerning the object or concept to which the word refers.

If the word that an indicator (or group) attaches to is itself a cmavo which governs a grammatical structure, then the indicator construct pertains to the referent of the entire structure. There is also a mechanism, discussed in Section 19.8 , for explicitly marking the range of words to which an indicator applies.

More details about the uses of indicators, and the way they interact with other specialized cmavo, are given in Chapter 19. It is worth mentioning that real-world interpretation is not necessarily consistent with the formal scope rules. People generally express emotions when they feel them, with only a minimum of grammatical constraint on that expression; complexities of emotional expression are seldom logically analyzable. Lojban attempts to provide a systematic reference that could possibly be ingrained to an instinctive level. However, it should always be assumed that the referent of an indicator has some uncertainty.

For example, in cases of multiple indicators expressed together, the combined form has some ambiguity of interpretation. It is possible to interpret the second indicator as expressing an attitude about the first, or to interpret both as expressing attitudes about the common referent. For example, in

Example 13.63. 

mi pu tavla do .o'onai .oi
I [past] talk-to you [Grrr!] [Oy!]

can be interpreted as expressing complaint about the anger, in which case it means Damn, I snapped at you ; or as expressing both anger and complaint about the listener, in which case it means I told you, you pest!

Similarly, an indicator after the final brivla of a tanru may be taken to express an attitude about the particular brivla placed there – as the rules have it – or about the entire bridi which hinges on that brivla. Remembering that indicators are supposedly direct expressions of emotion, this ambiguity is acceptable.

Even if the scope rules given for indicators turn out to be impractical or unintuitive for use in conversation, they are still useful in written expression. There, where you can go back and put in markers or move words around, the scope rules can be used in lieu of elaborate nuances of body language and intonation to convey the writer's intent.

13.10. Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pei

attitude question

dai

empathy

bu'o

start emotion

continue emotion

end emotion

You can ask someone how they are feeling with a normal bridi sentence, but you will get a normal bridi answer in response, one which may be true or false. Since the response to a question about emotions is no more logical than the emotion itself, this isn't appropriate.

The word pei is therefore reserved for attitude questions. Asked by itself, it captures all of the denotation of English How are you? coupled with How do you feel? (which has a slightly different range of usage).

When asked in the context of discourse, pei acts like other Lojban question words – it requests the respondent to fill in the blank , in this case with an appropriate attitudinal describing the respondent's feeling about the referent expression. As with other questions, plausibility is polite; if you answer with an irrelevant UI cmavo, such as a discursive, you are probably making fun of the questioner. (A ge'e , however, is always in order – you are not required to answer emotionally. This is not the same as .i'inai , which is privacy as the reverse of conviviality.)

Most often, however, the asker will use pei as a place holder for an intensity marker. (As a result, pei is placed in selma'o CAI, although selma'o UI would have been almost as appropriate. Grammatically, there is no difference between UI and CAI.) Such usage corresponds to a whole range of idiomatic usages in natural languages:

Example 13.64. 

.iepei
[agreement-question]

Do you agree?


Example 13.65. 

.iare'epei
[belief-spiritual-question]

Are you a Believer?


Example 13.66. 

.aipei
[intention-question]

Are you going to do it?


Example 13.66 might appear at the end of a command, to which the response

Example 13.67. 

.aicai
[intention-maximal]

corresponds to Aye! Aye! (hence the choice of cmavo).

Example 13.68. 

.e'apei
[permission-question]

Please, Mommy! Can I??


Additionally, when pei is used at the beginning of an indicator construct, it asks specifically if that construct reflects the attitude of the respondent, as in (asked of someone who has been ill or in pain):

Example 13.69. 

pei.o'u
[question-comfort]

Are you comfortable?


Example 13.70. 

pei.o'ucu'i
[question-comfort-neutral]

Are you no longer in pain?


Example 13.71. 

pei.o'usai
[question-comfort-strong]

Are you again healthy?


Empathy, which is not really an emotion, is expressed by the indicator dai. (Don't confuse empathy with sympathy, which is .uuse'inai.) Sometimes, as when telling a story, you want to attribute emotion to someone else. You can of course make a bridi claim that so-and-so felt such-and-such an emotion, but you can also make use of the attitudinal system by adding the indicator dai , which attributes the preceding attitudinal to someone else – exactly whom, must be determined from context. You can also use dai conversationally when you empathize, or feel someone else's emotion as if it were your own:

Example 13.72. 

.oiro'odai
[Pain-physical-empathy]

Ouch, that must have hurt!


It is even possible to empathize with a non-living object:

Example 13.73. 

le bloti .iidai .uu pu klama le xasloi
The ship [fear-empathy] [pity!] [past] goes-to the ocean-floor.

Fearfully the ship, poor thing, sank.


suggesting that the ship felt fear at its impending destruction, and simultaneously reporting the speaker's pity for it.

Both pei and dai represent exceptions to the normal rule that attitudinals reflect the speaker's attitude.

Finally, we often want to report how our attitudes are changing. If our attitude has not changed, we can just repeat the attitudinal. (Therefore, .ui .ui .ui is not the same as .uicai , but simply means that we are continuing to be happy.) If we want to report that we are beginning to feel, continuing to feel, or ceasing to feel an emotion, we can use the attitudinal contour cmavo bu'o.

When attached to an attitudinal, bu'o means that you are starting to have that attitude, bu'ocu'i that you are continuing to have it, and bu'onai that you are ceasing to have it. Some examples:

Example 13.74. 

.o'onai bu'o
[Anger!] [start-emotion]

I'm getting angry!


Example 13.75. 

.iu bu'onai .uinai
[Love!] [end-emotion] [unhappiness!]

I don't love you any more; I'm sad.


Note the difference in effect between Example 13.75 and:

Example 13.76. 

mi ca ba'o prami do ja'e le nu mi badri
I [present] [cessitive] love you with-result the event-of (I am-sad).

I no longer love you; therefore, I am sad.


which is a straightforward bridi claim. Example 13.76 states that you have (or have had) certain emotions; Example 13.75 expresses those emotions directly.

13.11. Evidentials

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ja'o

[jalge]

I conclude

ca'e

I define

ba'a

[balvi]

I expect

I experience

I remember

su'a

[sucta]

I generalize

I particularize

ti'e

[tirna]

I hear (hearsay)

ka'u

[kulnu]

I know by cultural means

se'o

[senva]

I know by internal experience

za'a

[zgana]

I observe

pe'i

[pensi]

I opine

ru'a

[sruma]

I postulate

ju'a

[jufra]

I state

Now we proceed from the attitudinal indicators and their relatives to the other, semantically unrelated, categories of indicators. The indicators known as evidentials show how the speaker came to say the utterance; i.e. the source of the information or the idea. Lojban's list of evidentials was derived from lists describing several American Indian languages. Evidentials are also essential to the constructed language Láadan, designed by the linguist and novelist Suzette Haden Elgin. Láadan's set of indicators was drawn on extensively in developing the Lojban indicator system.

It is important to realize, however, that evidentials are not some odd system used by some strange people who live at the other end of nowhere: although their English equivalents aren't single words, English-speakers have vivid notions of what constitutes evidence, and of the different kinds of evidence.

Like the attitudinal indicators, the evidentials belong to selma'o UI, and may be treated identically for grammatical purposes. Most of them are not usually considered scalar in nature, but a few have associated scales.

A bridi with an evidential in it becomes indisputable , in the sense that the speaker is saying how it is with him or her , which is beyond argument. Claims about one's own mental states may be true or false, but are hardly subject to other people's examination. If you say that you think, or perceive, or postulate such-and-such a predication, who can contradict you? Discourse that uses evidentials has therefore a different rhetorical flavor than discourse that does not; arguments tend to become what can be called dialogues or alternating monologues, depending on your prejudices.

Evidentials are most often placed at the beginning of sentences, and are often attached to the .i that separates sentences in connected discourse. It is in the nature of an evidential to affect the entire bridi in which it is placed: like the propositional attitude indicators, they strongly affect the claim made by the main bridi.

A bridi marked by ja'o is a conclusion by the speaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. Rough English equivalents of ja'o are thus and therefore.

A bridi marked by ca'e is true because the speaker says so. In addition to definitions of words, ca'e is also appropriate in what are called performatives, where the very act of speaking the words makes them true. An English example is I now pronounce you husband and wife , where the very act of uttering the words makes the listeners into husband and wife. A Lojban translation might be:

Example 13.77. 

ca'e le re do cu simxu speni
[I-define!] the two of-you are-mutual spouses.

The three scale positions of ba'a , when attached to a bridi, indicate that it is based on the speaker's view of the real world. Thus ba'a means that the statement represents a future event as anticipated by the speaker; ba'acu'i , a present event as experienced by the speaker; ba'anai , a past event as remembered by the speaker. It is accidental that this scale runs from future to past instead of past to future.

Example 13.78. 

ba'acu'i le tuple be mi cu se cortu
[I-experience!] the leg of me is-the-locus-of-pain.

My leg hurts.


A bridi marked by su'a is a generalization by the speaker based on other (stated or unstated) information or ideas. The difference between su'a and ja'o is that ja'o suggests some sort of reasoning or deduction (not necessarily rigorous), whereas su'a suggests some sort of induction or pattern recognition from existing examples (not necessarily rigorous).

The opposite point of the scale, su'anai , indicates abduction, or drawing specific conclusions from general premises or patterns.

This cmavo can also function as a discursive (see Section 13.12), in which case su'a means abstractly or in general , and su'anai means concretely or in particular.

A bridi marked by ti'e is relayed information from some source other than the speaker. There is no necessary implication that the information was relayed via the speaker's ears; what we read in a newspaper is an equally good example of ti'e , unless we have personal knowledge of the content.

Example 13.79. 

ti'e la .uengas cu zergau
[I-hear!] Wenga is-a-criminal-doer.

I hear that Wenga is a crook.


A bridi marked by ka'u is one held to be true in the speaker's cultural context, as a matter of myth or custom, for example. Such statements should be agreed on by a community of people – you cannot just make up your own cultural context – although objectivity in the sense of actual correspondence with the facts is certainly not required.

On the other hand, se'o marks a bridi whose truth is asserted by the speaker as a result of an internal experience not directly available to others, such as a dream, vision, or personal revelation. In some cultures, the line between ka'u and se'o is fuzzy or even nonexistent.

A bridi marked by za'a is based on perception or direct observation by the speaker. This use of observe is not connected with the Lojban observative , or bridi with the first sumti omitted. The latter has no explicit aspect, and could be a direct observation, a conclusion, an opinion, or other aspectual point of view.

Example 13.80. 

za'a do tatpi
[I-observe!] you are-tired.

I see you are tired.


A bridi marked by pe'i is the opinion of the speaker. The form pe'ipei is common, meaning Is this your opinion?. (Strictly, this should be peipe'i , in accordance with the distinction explained in Example 13.69 through Example 13.71 , but since pe'i is not really a scale, there is no real difference between the two orders.)

Example 13.81. 

pe'i la .kartagos. .ei se daspo
[I-opine!] that-named Carthage [obligation] is-destroyed.

In my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed.


A bridi marked by ru'a is an assumption made by the speaker. This is similar to one possible use of .e'u.

Example 13.82. 

ru'a doi .livinston.
[I-presume] o Livingstone.

Dr. Livingstone, I presume? (A rhetorical question: Stanley knew who he was.)


Finally, the evidential ju'a is used to avoid stating a specific basis for a statement. It can also be used when the basis for the speaker's statement is not covered by any other evidential. For the most part, using ju'a is equivalent to using no evidential at all, but in question form it can be useful: ju'apei means What is the basis for your statement? and serves as an evidential, as distinct from emotional, question.

13.12. Discursives

The term discursive is used for those members of selma'o UI that provide structure to the discourse, and which show how a given word or utterance relates to the whole discourse. To express these concepts in regular bridi would involve extra layers of nesting: rather than asserting that I also came , we would have to say I came; furthermore, the event of my coming is an additional instance of the relationship expressed by the previous sentence , which is intolerably clumsy. Typical English equivalents of discursives are words or phrases like however , summarizing , in conclusion , and for example.

Discursives are not attitudinals: they express no particular emotion. Rather, they are abbreviations for metalinguistic claims that reference the sentence or text they are found in.

Discursives are most often used at the beginning of sentences, often attached to the .i that separates sentences in running discourse, but can (like all other indicators) be attached to single words when it seems necessary or useful.

The discursives discussed in this section are given in groups, roughly organized by function. First, the consecutive discourse group:

ku'i

[karbi]

however/but/in contrast

ji'a

[jmina]

additionally

si'a

[simsa]

similarly

mi'u

[mintu]

ditto

po'o

the only relevant case

These five discursives are mutually exclusive, and therefore they are not usually considered as scales. The first four are used in consecutive discourse. The first, ku'i , makes an exception to the previous argument. The second, ji'a , adds weight to the previous argument. The third, si'a , adds quantity to the previous argument, enumerating an additional example. The fourth, mi'u , adds a parallel case to the previous argument, and can also be used in tables or the like to show that something is being repeated from the previous column. It is distinct from go'i (of selma'o GOhA, discussed in Section 7.6), which is a non-discursive version of ditto that explicitly repeats the claim of the previous bridi.

Lastly, po'o is used when there is no other comparable case, and thus corresponds to some of the uses of only , a word difficult to express in pure bridi form:

Example 13.83. 

mi po'o darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi
I [only] hit the of-me cousin at-locus the nose.

Only I (nobody else) hit my cousin on his nose.


Example 13.84. 

mi darxi po'o le mi tamne fo le nazbi
I hit [only] the of-me cousin at-locus the nose.

I only hit my cousin on his nose (I did nothing else to him).


Example 13.85. 

mi darxi le mi tamne ku po'o fo le nazbi
I hit the of-me cousin [only] at-locus the nose.

I hit only my cousin on his nose (no one else).


Example 13.86. 

mi darxi le mi tamne fo le nazbi ku po'o
I hit the of-me cousin at-locus the nose [only].

I hit my cousin only on his nose (nowhere else).


Note that only can go before or after what it modifies in English, but po'o , as an indicator, always comes afterward.

Next, the commentary on words group:

va'i

[valsi]

in other words

in the same words

ta'u

[tanru]

expanding a tanru

making a tanru

The discursives va'i and ta'u operate at the level of words, rather than discourse proper, or if you like, they deal with how things are said. An alternative English expression for va'i is rephrasing ; for va'inai , repeating. Also compare va'i with ke'u , discussed below.

The cmavo ta'u is a discursive unique to Lojban; it expresses the particularly Lojbanic device of tanru. Since tanru are semantically ambiguous, they are subject to misunderstanding. This ambiguity can be removed by expanding the tanru into some semantically unambiguous structure, often involving relative clauses or the introduction of additional brivla. The discursive ta'u marks the transition from the use of a brief but possibly confusing tanru to its fuller, clearer expansion; the discursive ta'unai marks a transition in the reverse direction.

Next, the commentary on discourse group:

li'a

[klina]

clearly; obviously

obscurely

ba'u

[banli]

exaggeration

accuracy

understatement

zo'o

humorously

dully

seriously

sa'e

[satci]

precisely speaking

loosely speaking

to'u

[tordu]

in brief

in detail

do'a

[dunda]

generously

parsimoniously

sa'u

[sampu]

simply

elaborating

pa'e

[pajni]

justice

prejudice

je'u

[jetnu]

truly

falsely

This group is used by the speaker to characterize the nature of the discourse, so as to prevent misunderstanding. It is well-known that listeners often fail to recognize a humorous statement and take it seriously, or miss an exaggeration, or try to read more into a statement than the speaker intends to put there. In speech, the tone of voice often provides the necessary cue, but the reader of ironic or understated or imprecise discourse is often simply clueless. As with the attitudinals, the use of these cmavo may seem fussy to new Lojbanists, but it is important to remember that zo'o , for example, is the equivalent of smiling while you speak, not the equivalent of a flat declaration like What I'm about to say is supposed to be funny.

A few additional English equivalents: for sa'enai , roughly speaking or approximately speaking ; for sa'unai , furthermore ; for to'u , in short or skipping details ; for do'a , broadly construed ; for do'anai (as you might expect), narrowly construed.

The cmavo pa'e is used to claim (truly or falsely) that one is being fair or just to all parties mentioned, whereas pa'enai admits (or proclaims) a bias in favor of one party.

The scale of je'u and je'unai is a little different from the others in the group. By default, we assume that people speak the truth – or at least, that if they are lying, they will do their best to conceal it from us. So under what circumstances would je'unai be used, or je'u be useful? For one thing, je'u can be used to mark a tautology: a sentence that is a truth of logic, like All cats are cats. Its counterpart je'unai then serves to mark a logical contradiction. In addition, je'unai can be used to express one kind of sarcasm or irony, where the speaker pretends to believe what he/she says, but actually wishes the listener to infer a contrary opinion. Other forms of irony can be marked with zo'o (humor) or .ianai (disbelief).

When used as a discursive, su'a (see Section 13.11) belongs to this group.

Next, the knowledge group:

ju'o

[djuno]

certainly

uncertain

certainly not

la'a

[lakne]

probably

improbably

These two discursives describe the speaker's state of knowledge about the claim of the associated bridi. They are similar to the propositional attitudes of Section 13.3 , as they create a hypothetical world. We may be quite certain that something is true, and label our bridi with ju'o ; but it may be false all the same.

Next, the discourse management group:

ta'o

[tanjo]

by the way

returning to point

ra'u

[ralju]

chiefly

equally

incidentally

mu'a

[mupli]

for example

omitting examples

end examples

zu'u

on the one hand

on the other hand

ke'u

[krefu]

repeating

continuing

da'i

supposing

in fact

This final group is used to perform what may be called managing the discourse : providing reference points to help the listener understand the flow from one sentence to the next.

Other English equivalents of ta'onai are anyway , anyhow , in any case , in any event , as I was saying , and continuing.

The scale of ra'u has to do with the importance of the point being, or about to be, expressed: ra'u is the most important point, ra'ucu'i is a point of equal importance, and ra'unai is a lesser point. Other English equivalents of ra'u are above all and primarily.

The cmavo ke'u is very similar to va'i , although ke'unai and va'inai are quite different. Both ke'u and va'i indicate that the same idea is going to be expressed using different words, but the two cmavo differ in emphasis. Using ke'u emphasizes that the content is the same; using va'i emphasizes that the words are different. Therefore, ke'unai shows that the content is new (and therefore the words are also); va'inai shows that the words are the same (and therefore so is the content). One English equivalent of ke'unai is furthermore.

The discursive da'i marks the discourse as possibly taking a non-real-world viewpoint ( Supposing that , By hypothesis), whereas da'inai insists on the real-world point of view ( In fact , In truth , According to the facts). A common use of da'i is to distinguish between:

Example 13.87. 

ganai da'i do viska le mi citno mensi
If [hypothetical] you see the of-me young sister,
gi ju'o do djuno le du'u ri pazvau
then [certain] you know the predication-of she is-pregnant.

If you were to see my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.


and:

Example 13.88. 

ganai da'inai do viska le mi citno mensi
If [factual] you see the of-me young sister,
gi ju'o do djuno le du'u ri pazvau
then [certainty] you know the predication-of she is-pregnant.

If you saw my younger sister, you would certainly know she is pregnant.


It is also perfectly correct to omit the discursive altogether, and leave the context to indicate which significance is meant. (Chinese always leaves this distinction to the context: the Chinese sentence

Example 13.89. 

  • 如果你看到我的妹妹,你一定会知道,她怀孕了。

  • Rúguǒ nǐ kàn dào wǒ de mèimei, nǐ yīdìng huì zhīdào, tā huáiyùnle.

  • if you see-arrive my younger-sister, you certainly know she pregnant


is the equivalent of either Example 13.87 or Example 13.88.)

13.13. Miscellaneous indicators

Some indicators do not fall neatly into the categories of attitudinal, evidential, or discursive. This section discusses the following miscellaneous indicators:

ki'a

metalinguistic confusion

na'i

metalinguistic negator

jo'a

metalinguistic affirmer

li'o

omitted text (quoted material)

sa'a

material inserted by editor/narrator

xu

true-false question

pau

question premarker

rhetorical question

pe'a

figurative language

literal language

bi'u

new information

old information

ge'e

non-specific indicator

The cmavo ki'a is one of the most common of the miscellaneous indicators. It expresses metalinguistic confusion; i.e. confusion about what has been said, as opposed to confusion not tied to the discourse (which is .uanai). The confusion may be about the meaning of a word or of a grammatical construct, or about the referent of a sumti. One of the uses of English which corresponds to ki'a :

Example 13.90. 

mi nelci le ctuca
I like the teacher.
.i le ki'a ctuca
The which teacher?

Which teacher?


Here, the second speaker does not understand the referent of the sumti le ctuca , and so echoes back the sumti with the confusion marker.

The metalinguistic negation cmavo na'i and its opposite jo'a are explained in full in Chapter 15. In general, na'i indicates that there is something wrong with a piece of discourse: either an error, or a false underlying assumption, or something else of the sort. The discourse is invalid or inappropriate due to the marked word or construct.

Similarly, jo'a marks something which looks wrong but is in fact correct. These two cmavo constitute a scale, but are kept apart for two reasons: na'inai means the same as jo'a , but would be too confusing as an affirmation; jo'anai means the same as na'i , but is too long to serve as a convenient metalinguistic negator.

The next two cmavo are used to assist in quoting texts written or spoken by others. It is often the case that we wish to quote only part of a text, or to supply additional material either by way of commentary or to make a fragmentary text grammatical. The cmavo li'o serves the former function. It indicates that words were omitted from the quotation. What remains of the quotation must be grammatical, however, as li'o does not serve any grammatical function. It cannot, for example, take the place of a missing selbri in a bridi, or supply the missing tail of a description sumti: le li'o in isolation is not grammatical.

The cmavo sa'a indicates in a quotation that the marked word or construct was not actually expressed, but is inserted for editorial, narrative, or grammatical purposes. Strictly, even a li'o should appear in the form li'osa'a , since the li'o was not part of the original quotation. In practice, this and other forms which are already associated with metalinguistic expressions, such as sei (of selma'o SEI) or to'i (of selma'o TO) need not be marked except where confusion might result.

In the rare case that the quoted material already contains one or more instances of sa'a , they can be changed to sa'asa'a.

The cmavo xu marks truth questions, which are discussed in detail in Section 15.8. In general, xu may be translated Is it true that ... ? and questions whether the attached bridi is true. When xu is attached to a specific word or construct, it directs the focus of the question to that word or construct.

Lojban question words, unlike those of English, frequently do not stand at the beginning of the question. Placing the cmavo pau at the beginning of a bridi helps the listener realize that the bridi is a question, like the symbol at the beginning of written Spanish questions that looks like an upside-down question mark. The listener is then warned to watch for the actual question word.

Although pau is grammatical in any location (like all indicators), it is not really useful except at or near the beginning of a bridi. Its scalar opposite, paunai , signals that a bridi is not really a question despite its form. This is what we call in English a rhetorical question: an example appears in the English text near the beginning of Section 13.11.

The cmavo pe'a is the indicator of figurative speech, indicating that the previous word should be taken figuratively rather than literally:

Example 13.91. 

mi viska le blanu pe'a zdani
I see the blue [figurative] house.

I see the blue house.


Here the house is not blue in the sense of color, but in some other sense, whose meaning is entirely culturally dependent. The use of pe'a unambiguously marks a cultural reference: blanu in Example 13.91 could mean sad (as in English) or something completely different.

The negated form, pe'anai , indicates that what has been said is to be interpreted literally, in the usual way for Lojban; natural-language intuition is to be ignored.

Alone among the cmavo of selma'o UI, pe'a has a rafsi, namely pev. This rafsi is used in forming figurative (culturally dependent) lujvo, whose place structure need have nothing to do with the place structure of the components. Thus risnyjelca (heart burn) might have a place structure like:

x1 is the heart of x2, burning in atmosphere x3 at temperature x4

whereas pevrisnyjelca , explicitly marked as figurative, might have the place structure:

x1 is indigestion/heartburn suffered by x2

which obviously has nothing to do with the places of either risna or jelca.

The uses of bi'u and bi'unai correspond to one of the uses of the English articles the and a/an. An English-speaker telling a story may begin with I saw a man who .... Later in the story, the same man will be referred to with the phrase the man. Lojban does not use its articles in the same way: both a man and the man would be translated le nanmu , since the speaker has in mind a specific man. However, the first use might be marked le bi'u nanmu , to indicate that this is a new man, not mentioned before. Later uses could correspondingly be tagged le bi'unai nanmu.

Most of the time, the distinction between bi'u and bi'unai need not be made, as the listener can infer the right referent. However, if a different man were referred to still later in the story, le bi'u nanmu would clearly show that this man was different from the previous one.

Finally, the indicator ge'e has been discussed in Section 13.8 and Section 13.10. It is used to express an attitude which is not covered by the existing set, or to avoid expressing any attitude.

Another use for ge'e is to explicitly avoid expressing one's feeling on a given scale; in this use, it functions like a member of selma'o CAI: .iige'e means roughly I'm not telling whether I'm afraid or not.

kau

indirect question

This cmavo is explained in detail in Section 11.8. It marks the word it is attached to as the focus of an indirect question:

Example 13.92. 

mi djuno le du'u dakau klama le zarci
I know the predication-of somebody-[indirect?] goes to-the store.

I know who goes to the store.


13.14. Vocative scales

Vocatives are words used to address someone directly; they precede and mark a name used in direct address, just as la (and the other members of selma'o LA) mark a name used to refer to someone. The vocatives actually are indicators – in fact, discursives – but the need to tie them to names and other descriptions of listeners requires them to be separated from selma'o UI. But like the cmavo of UI, the members of selma'o COI can be negated with nai to get the opposite part of the scale.

Because of the need for redundancy in noisy environments, the Lojban design does not compress the vocatives into a minimum number of scales. Doing so would make a non-redundant nai too often vital to interpretation of a protocol signal, as explained later in this section.

The grammar of vocatives is explained in Section 6.11 ; but in brief, a vocative may be followed by a cmevla (without la), a description (without le or its relatives), a complete sumti, or nothing at all (if the addressee is obvious from the context). There is an elidable terminator, do'u (of selma'o DOhU) which is almost never required unless no cmevla (or other indication of the addressee) follows the vocative.

Using any vocative except mi'e (explained below) implicitly defines the meaning of the pro-sumti do , as the whole point of vocatives is to specify the listener, or at any rate the desired listener – even if the desired listener isn't listening! We will use the terms speaker and listener for clarity, although in written Lojban the appropriate terms would be writer and reader.

In the following list of vocatives, the translations include the symbol X. This represents the name (or identifying description, or whatever) of the listener.

The cmavo doi is the general-purpose vocative. It is not considered a scale, and doinai is not grammatical. In general, doi needs no translation in English (we just use names by themselves without any preceding word, although in poetic styles we sometimes say Oh X , which is equivalent to doi). One may attach an attitudinal to doi to express various English vocatives. For example, doi .io means Sir/Madam! , whereas doi .ionai means You there!.

coi

greetings

Hello, X ; Greetings, X ; indicates a greeting to the listener.

co'o

partings

Good-bye, X ; indicates parting from immediate company by either the speaker or the listener. coico'o means greeting in passing.

ju'i

[jundi]

attention

at ease

ignore me/us

Attention/Lo/Hark/Behold/Hey!/Listen, X ; indicates an important communication that the listener should listen to.

nu'e

[nupre]

promise

release promise

non-promise

I promise, X ; indicates a promise to the listener. In some contexts, nu'e may be prefixed to an oath or other formal declaration.

ta'a

[tavla]

interruption

I interrupt, X , I desire the floor, X ; a vocative expression to (possibly) interrupt and claim the floor to make a statement or expression. This can be used for both rude and polite interruptions, although rude interruptions will probably tend not to use a vocative at all. An appropriate response to an interruption might be re'i (or re'inai to ignore the interruption).

pe'u

[cpedu]

request

Please, X ; indicates a request to the listener. It is a formal, non-attitudinal, equivalent of .e'o with a specific recipient being addressed. On the other hand, .e'o may be used when there is no specific listener, but merely a sense of petition floating in the air , as it were.

ki'e

[ckire]

appreciation; gratitude

disappreciation; ingratitude

Thank you, X ; indicates appreciation or gratitude toward the listener. The usual response is je'e , but fi'i is appropriate on rare occasions: see the explanation of fi'i.

fi'i

[friti]

welcome; offering

unwelcome; inhospitality

At your service, X ; Make yourself at home, X ; offers hospitality (possibly in response to thanks, but not necessarily) to the listener. Note that fi'i is not the equivalent of American English You're welcome as a mechanical response to Thank you ; that is je'e , as noted below.

be'e

[benji]

request to send

Request to send to X ; indicates that the speaker wishes to express something, and wishes to ensure that the listener is listening. In a telephone conversation, can be used to request the desired conversant(s). A more colloquial equivalent is Hello? Can I speak to X?.

re'i

[bredi]

ready to receive

not ready

Ready to receive, X ; indicates that the speaker is attentive and awaiting communication from the listener. It can be used instead of mi'e to respond when called to the telephone. The negative form can be used to prevent the listener from continuing to talk when the speaker is unable to pay attention: it can be translated Hold on! or Just a minute.

mu'o

[mulno]

completion of utterance

more to follow

Over, X ; indicates that the speaker has completed the current utterance and is ready to hear a response from the listener. The negative form signals that the pause or non-linguistic sound which follows does not represent the end of the current utterance: more colloquially, I'm not done talking!

je'e

[jimpe]

successful receipt

unsuccessful receipt

Roger, X! , I understand ; acknowledges the successful receipt of a communication from the listener. The negative form indicates failure to receive correctly, and is usually followed by ke'o. The colloquial English equivalents of je'e and je'enai are the grunt typically written uh-huh and What?/Excuse me?. je'e is also used to mean You're welcome when that is a response to Thank you.

vi'o

will comply

will not comply

Wilco, X , I understand and will comply. Similar to je'e but signals an intention (similar to .ai) to comply with the other speaker's request. This cmavo is the main way of saying OK in Lojban, in the usual sense of Agreed! , although .ie carries some of the same meaning. The negative form indicates that the message was received but that you will not comply: a very colloquial version is No way!.

ke'o

[krefu]

please repeat

no repeat needed

What did you say, X? ; a request for repetition or clarification due to unsuccessful receipt or understanding. This is the vocative equivalent of ki'a , and is related to je'enai. The negative form may be rendered Okay, already; I get the point!

fe'o

[fanmo]

end of communication

not done

Over and out, X ; indicates completion of statement(s) and communication directed at the identified person(s). Used to terminate a letter if a signature is not required because the sender has already been identified (as in memos). The negative form means Wait, hold it, we're not done! and differs from mu'onai in that it means more exchanges are to follow, rather than that the current exchange is incomplete. Do not confuse fe'o with fa'o (selma'o FAhO) which is a mechanical, extra-grammatical signal that a text is complete. One may say fe'o to one participant of a multi-way conversation and then go on speaking to the others.

mi'e

[cmavo: mi]

self-identification

non-identification

And I am X ; a generalized self-vocative. Although grammatically just like the other members of selma'o COI, mi'e is quite different semantically. In particular, rather than specifying the listener, the person whose name (or description) follows mi'e is taken to be the speaker. Therefore, using mi'e specifies the meaning of the pro-sumti mi. It can be used to introduce oneself, to close letters, or to identify oneself on the telephone.

This cmavo is often combined with other members of COI: fe'omi'e would be an appropriate closing at the end of a letter; re'imi'e would be a self-vocative used in delayed responses, as when called to the phone, or possibly in a roll-call. As long as the mi'e comes last, the following name is that of the speaker; if another COI cmavo is last, the following name is that of the listener. It is not possible to name both speaker and listener in a single vocative expression, but this fact is of no importance, because wherever one vocative expression is grammatical, any number of consecutive ones may appear.

The negative form denies an identity which someone else has attributed to you; mi'enai .djan. means that you are saying you are not John.

Many of the vocatives have been listed with translations which are drawn from radio use: roger , wilco , over and out. This form of translation does not mean that Lojban is a language of CB enthusiasts, but rather that in most natural languages these forms are so well handled by the context that only in specific domains (like speaking on the radio) do they need special words. In Lojban, dependence on the context can be dangerous, as speaker and listener may not share the right context, and so the vocatives provide a formal protocol for use when it is appropriate. Other appropriate contexts include computer communications and parliamentary procedure: in the latter context, the protocol question ta'apei would mean Will the speaker yield?

13.15. A sample dialogue

The following dialogue in Lojban illustrates the uses of attitudinals and protocol vocatives in conversation. The phrases enclosed in sei ... se'u indicate the speaker of each sentence.

la .rik. .e la .alis. nerkla le kafybarja
That-name Rick and that-named Alice in-go to-the coffee-bar.

Rick and Alice go into the coffee bar.

.i sei la .rik. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Rick says, [end-comment]
ta'a ro zvati be ti
[Interrupt] all at this-place,
mi ba za speni ti .iu
I [future] [medium] am-spouse-to this-one [love].

Rick said, Sorry to break in, everybody. Pretty soon I'm getting married to my love here.

.i sei la .djordj. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named George says, [end-comment]
.a'o ko gleki doi ma
[Hope] [You-imperative] are-happy, O [who?]

George said, I hope you'll be happy, um, ...?

.i sei la .pam. cusku se'u pe'u .alis.
[Comment] that-named Pam says, [end-comment] [Please] Alice,
xu mi ba terfriti le nunspenybi'o
[Is-it-true?] I [future] receive-offer-of the event-of-spouse-becoming?

Pam said, Please, Alice, am I going to be invited to the wedding?

.i sei la .mark. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Mark says, [end-comment]
coi ba za speni
[Greetings] [future] [medium] spouse(s),
a'o le re do lifri le ka gleki
[Hope] the two of-you experience the property-of being-happy.

Mark said, Hello, spouses-to-be. I hope both of you will be very happy.

.i sei la .rik. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Rick says, [end-comment]
mi'e .rik. doi terpreti
[I-am] Rick, O questioners.

Rick said, My name is Rick, for those of you who want to know.

.i sei la .alis. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Alice says, [end-comment]
nu'e .pam. .o'e ro'i do ba zvati
[Promise-to] Pam, [closeness] [emotional] you [future] are-at.

Alice said, I promise you'll be there, Pam honey.

.i sei la .fred. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Fred says, [end-comment]
.ui nai cai ro'i mi ji'a
[Happy] [not] [maximal] [emotional] I [additionally]
prami la .alis. fe'o .rik.
love that-named Alice. [Over-and-out-to] Rick.

I love Alice too, said Fred miserably. Have a nice life, Rick.

.i la .fred. cliva
that-named Fred leaves.

And he left.

.i sei la .rik. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Rick says, [end-comment]
fi'i ro zvati
[Welcome-to] all at-place,
ko pinxe pa ckafi fi'o pleji mi
[You-imperative] drink one coffee with payer me.

Rick said, raising his voice, A cup of coffee for the house, on me.

.i sei la .pam. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Pam says, [end-comment]
be'e selfu
[Request-to-speak-to] server.

Pam said, Waiter!

.i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u re'i
[Comment] the server says, [end-comment] [Ready-to-receive].

The waiter replied, May I help you?

.i sei la .pam. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Pam says, [end-comment]
.e'o ko selfu le traji xamgu ckafi
[Petition] [You-imperative] serve the (superlatively good) coffee
le ba za speni fi'o pleji mi
to-the [future] [medium] spouse with payer me.

Pam said, One Jamaica Blue for the lovebirds here, on my tab.

.i sei le selfu cu cusku se'u vi'o
[Comment] the server says, [end-comment] [Will-comply]

Gotcha , said the waiter.

.i sei la .rik. cusku se'u ki'e .pam.
[Comment] that-named Rick says, [end-comment] [Thanks] Pam.

Thanks, Pam , said Rick.

.i sei la .pam. cusku se'u je'e
[Comment] that-named Pam says, [end-comment] [Acknowledge].

Sure , said Pam.

.i sei la .djan. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named John says, [end-comment]
.y. mi .y. mutce spopa .y. le nu le speni
[Uh] I [uh] very [nonexistent-gismu] [uh] the event-of the spouse
si .y. ba speni .y. .y. su .yyyyyy. mu'o
[erase] [uh] [future] spouse [uh] [uh] [erase-all] [uh] [over]

John said, I, er, a lotta, uh, marriage, upcoming marriage, .... Oh, forget it. Er, later.

.i sei la .djordj. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named George says, [end-comment]
ke'o .djan. zo'o
[Repeat-O] John [humor].

How's that again, John? said George.

.i sei la .pam. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named Pam says, [end-comment]
ju'i .djordj. .e'unai le kabri ba zi farlu
[Attention] George, [Warning] the cup [future] [short] falls.

George, watch out! said Pam. The cup's falling!

.i le kabri cu je'a farlu
The cup indeed falls.

The cup fell.

.i sei la .djan. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named John says, [end-comment]
e'o doi .djordj. zo'o rapygau
[Petition] o George [humor] repeat-cause.

John said, Try that again, George!

.i sei la .djordj. cusku se'u
[Comment] that-named George says, [end-comment]
co'o ro zvati pe secau la .djan. ga'i
[Partings] all at-place which-are without that-named John [superiority]

Goodbye to all of you, said George sneeringly, except John.

.i la .djordj. cliva
that-named George leaves.

George left.

13.16. Tentative conclusion

The exact ramifications of the indicator system in actual usage are unknown. There has never been anything like it in natural language before. The system provides great potential for emotional expression and transcription, from which significant Sapir-Whorf effects can be anticipated. When communicating across cultural boundaries, where different indicators are often used for the same emotion, accidental offense can be avoided. If we ever ran into an alien race, a culturally neutral language of emotion could be vital. (A classic example, taken from the science fiction of Larry Niven, is to imagine speaking Lojban to the carnivorous warriors called Kzinti, noting that a human smile bares the teeth, and could be seen as an intent to attack.) And for communicating emotions to computers, when we cannot identify all of the signals involved in subliminal human communication (things like body language are also cultural), a system like this is needed.

We have tried to err on the side of overkill. There are distinctions possible in this system that no one may care to make in any culture. But it was deemed more neutral to overspecify and let usage decide, than to choose a limited set and constrain emotional expression. For circumstances in which even the current indicator set is not enough, it is possible using the cmavo sei , explained in Section 19.12 , to create metalinguistic comments that act like indicators.

We envision an evolutionary development. At this point, the system is little more than a mental toy. Many of you who read this will try playing around with various combinations of indicators, trying to figure out what emotions they express and when the expressions might be useful. You may even find an expression for which there currently is no good English word and start using it. Why not, if it helps you express your feelings?

There will be a couple dozen of these used pretty much universally – mostly just simple attitudinals with, at most, intensity markers. These are the ones that will quickly be expressed at the subconscious level. But every Lojbanist who plays with the list will bring in a couple of new words. Poets will paint emotional pictures, and people who identify with those pictures will use the words so created for their own experiences.

Just as a library of tanru is built up, so will a library of attitudes be built. Unlike the tanru, though, the emotional expressions are built on some fairly nebulous root emotions – words that cannot be defined with the precision of the gismu. The emotion words of Lojban will very quickly take on a life of their own, and the outline given here will evolve into a true system of emotions.

There are several theories as to the nature of emotion, and they change from year to year as we learn more about ourselves. Whether or not Lojban's additive/scalar emotional model is an accurate model for human emotions, it does support the linguistic needs for expressing those emotions. Researchers may learn more about the nature of human emotions by exploring the use of the system by Lojban speakers. They also may be able to use the Lojban system as a means for more clearly recording emotions.

The full list of scales and attitudes will probably not be used until someone speaks the language from birth. Until then, people will use the attitudes that are important to them. In this way, we counter cultural bias – if a culture is prone to recognizing and/or expressing certain emotions more than others, its members will use only those out of the enormous set available. If a culture hides certain emotions, its members simply won't express them.

Perhaps native Lojban speakers will be more expressively clear about their emotions than others. Perhaps they will feel some emotions more strongly than others in ways that can be correlated with the word choices; any difference from the norms of other cultures could be significant. Psychologists have devised elaborate tests for measuring attitudes and personality; this may be the easiest area in which to detect any systematic cultural effect of the type sought to confirm Sapir-Whorf, simply because we already have tools in existence to test it. Because Lojban is unique among languages in having such extensive and expressive indicators, it is likely that a Sapir-Whorf effect will occur and will be recognized.

It is unlikely that we will know the true potential of a system like this one until and unless we have children raised entirely in a multi-cultural Lojban-speaking environment. We learn too many cultural habits in the realm of emotional communication at our mother's knee. Such children will have a Lojban system that has stronger reinforcement than any typical culture system. The second generation of such children, then, could be said to be the start of a true Lojbanic culture.

We shouldn't need to wait that long to detect significant effects. Emotion is so basic to our lives that even a small change or improvement in emotional communication would have immediately noticeable effects. Perhaps it will be the case that the most important contribution of our logical language will be in the non-logical realm of emotion!

Chapter 14. If wishes were horses: the Lojban connective system

The picture for chapter 14

14.1. Logical connection and truth tables

Lojban is a logical language: the name of the language itself means logical language. The fundamentals of ordinary logic (there are variant logics, which aren't addressed in this book) include the notions of a sentence (sometimes called a statement or proposition), which asserts a truth or falsehood, and a small set of truth functions , which combine two sentences to create a new sentence. The truth functions have the special characteristic that the truth value (that is, the truth or falsehood) of the results depends only on the truth value of the component sentences. For example,

Example 14.1. 

John is a man or James is a woman.


is true if John is a man is true, or if James is a woman is true. If we know whether John is a man, and we know whether James is a woman, we know whether John is a man or James is a woman is true, provided we know the meaning of or. Here John is a man and James is a woman are the component sentences.

We will use the phrase negating a sentence to mean changing its truth value. An English sentence may always be negated by prefixing It is false that ... , or more idiomatically by inserting not at the right point, generally before the verb. James is not a woman is the negation of James is a woman , and vice versa. Recent slang can also negate a sentence by following it with the exclamation Not!

Words like or are called logical connectives , and Lojban has many of them, as befits a logical language. This chapter is mostly concerned with explaining the forms and uses of the Lojban logical connectives. There are a number of other logical connectives in English such as and , and/or , if , only if , whether or not , and others; however, not every use of these English words corresponds to a logical connective. This point will be made clear in particular cases as needed. The other English meanings are supported by different Lojban connective constructs.

The Lojban connectives form a system (as the title of this chapter suggests), regular and predictable, whereas natural-language connectives are rather less systematic and therefore less predictable.

There exist 16 possible different truth functions. A truth table is a graphical device for specifying a truth function, making it clear what the value of the truth function is for every possible value of the component sentences. Here is a truth table for or :

first second result
True True True
True False True
False True True
False False False

This table means that if the first sentence stated is true, and the second sentence stated is true, then the result of the truth function is also true. The same is true for every other possible combination of truth values except the one where both the first and the second sentences are false, in which case the truth value of the result is also false.

Suppose that John is a man is true (and John is not a man is false), and that James is a woman is false (and James is not a woman is true). Then the truth table tells us that

John is a man, or James is not a woman (true true ) is true
John is a man, or James is a woman (true , false) is true
John is not a man, or James is not a woman (false, true ) is true
John is not a man, or James is a woman (false, false) is false

Note that the kind of or used in this example can also be expressed (in formal English) with and/or. There is a different truth table for the kind of or that means either ... or ... but not both.

To save space, we will write truth tables in a shorter format henceforth. Let the letters T and F stand for True and False. The rows will always be given in the order shown above: TT, TF, FT, FF for the two sentences. Then it is only necessary to give the four letters from the result column, which can be written TTTF, as can be seen by reading down the third column of the table above. So TTTF is the abbreviated truth table for the or truth function. Here are the 16 possible truth functions, with an English version of what it means to assert that each function is, in fact, true ( first refers to the first sentence, and second to the second sentence):

TTTT (always true)
TTTF first is true and/or second is true.
TTFT first is true if second is true.
TTFF first is true whether or not second is true.
TFTT first is true only if second is true.
TFTF whether or not first is true, second is true.
TFFT first is true if and only if second is true.
TFFF first is true and second is true
FTTT first and second are not both true.
FTTF first or second is true, but not both.
FTFT whether or not first is true, second is false.
FTFF first is true, but second is false.
FFTT first is false whether or not second is true.
FFTF first is false, but second is true.
FFFT neither first nor second is true.
FFFF (always false)

Skeptics may work out the detailed truth tables for themselves.

14.2. The four basic vowels

Lojban regards four of these 16 truth functions as fundamental, and assigns them the four vowels A , E , O , and U. These letters do not represent actual cmavo or selma'o, but rather a component vowel from which actual logical-connective cmavo are built up, as explained in the next section. Here are the four vowels, their truth tables, and rough English equivalents:

A TTTF or, and/or
E TFFF and
O TFFT if and only if
U TTFF whether or not

More precisely:

A is true if either or both sentences are true
E is true if both sentences are true, but not otherwise
O is true if the sentences are both true or both false
U is true if the first sentence is true, regardless of the truth value of the second sentence

With the four vowels, the ability to negate either sentence, and the ability to exchange the sentences, as if their order had been reversed, we can create all of the 16 possible truth functions except TTTT and FFFF, which are fairly useless anyway. The following table illustrates how to create each of the 14 remaining truth functions:

TTTF A
TTFT A with second sentence negated
TTFF U
TFTT A with first sentence negated
TFTF U with sentences exchanged
TFFT O
TFFF E
FTTT A with both sentences negated
FTTF O with either first or second negated (not both)
FTFT U with sentences exchanged and then second negated
FTFF E with second sentence negated
FFTT U with first sentence negated
FFTF E with first sentence negated
FFFT E with both sentences negated

Note that exchanging the sentences is only necessary with U. The three other basic truth functions are commutative; that is, they mean the same thing regardless of the order of the component sentences. There are other ways of getting some of these truth tables; these just happen to be the methods usually employed.

14.3. The six types of logical connectives

In order to remain unambiguous, Lojban cannot have only a single logical connective for each truth function. There are many places in the grammar of the language where logical connection is permitted, and each must have its appropriate set of connectives. If the connective suitable for sumti were used to connect selbri, ambiguity would result.

Consider the English sentence:

Example 14.2. 

Mary went to the window and ...


where the last word could be followed by the door , a noun phrase, or by saw the horses , a sentence with subject omitted, or by John went to the door , a full sentence, or by one of a variety of other English grammatical constructions. Lojban cannot tolerate such grammatical looseness.

Instead, there are a total of five different selma'o used for logical connection: A, GA, GIhA, GUhA, and JA. Each of these includes four cmavo, one based on each of the four vowels, which is always the last vowel in the cmavo. In selma'o A, the vowel is the entire cmavo.

Thus, in selma'o A, the cmavo for the function A is .a. (Do not confuse A, which is a selma'o, with A , which is a truth function, or .a, which is a cmavo.) Likewise, the cmavo for E in selma'o GIhA is gi'e , and the cmavo for U in selma'o GA is gu. This systematic regularity makes the cmavo easier to learn.

Obviously, four cmavo are not enough to express the 14 truth functions explained in Section 14.1. Therefore, compound cmavo must be used. These compound cmavo follow a systematic pattern: each has one cmavo from the five logical connection selma'o at its heart, and may also contain one or more of the auxiliary cmavo se , na , or nai. Which auxiliaries are used with which logical connection cmavo, and with what grammar and meaning, will be explained in the following sections. The uses of each of these auxiliary cmavo relates to its other uses in other parts of Lojban grammar.

For convenience, each of the types of compound cmavo used for logical connection is designated by a Lojban name. The name is derived by changing the final -A of the selma'o name to -ek ; the reasons for using -ek are buried deep in the history of the Loglan Project. Thus, compound cmavo based on selma'o A are known as eks, and those based on selma'o JA are known as jeks. (When writing in English, it is conventional to use eks as the plural of ek.) When the term logical connective is used in this chapter, it refers to one or more of these kinds of compound cmavo.

Why does the title of this section refer to six types when there are only five selma'o? A jek may be preceded by .i , the usual Lojban cmavo for connecting two sentences. The compound produced by .i followed by a jek is known as an ijek. It is useful to think of ijeks as a sixth kind of logical connective, parallel to eks, jeks, geks, giheks, and guheks.

There also exist giks, joiks, ijoiks, and joigiks, which are not logical connectives, but are other kinds of compound cmavo which will be introduced later.

14.4. Logical connection of bridi

Now we are ready to express Example 14.1 in Lojban! The kind of logical connective which is placed between two Lojban bridi to connect them logically is an ijek:

Example 14.3. 

la .djan. nanmu .ija la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-a-man or that-named James is-a-woman.

Here we have two separate Lojban bridi, la .djan. nanmu and la .djeimyz. ninmu. These bridi are connected by .i ja , the ijek for the truth function A. The .i portion of the ijek tells us that we are dealing with separate sentences here. Similarly, we can now say:

Example 14.4. 

la .djan. nanmu .ije la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-a-man and that-named James is-a-woman.

Example 14.5. 

la .djan. nanmu .ijo la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-a-man if-and-only-if that-named James is-a-woman.

Example 14.6. 

la .djan. nanmu .iju la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-a-man whether-or-not that-named James is-a-woman.

To obtain the other truth tables listed in Section 14.2 , we need to know how to negate the two bridi which represent the component sentences. We could negate them directly by inserting na before the selbri, but Lojban also allows us to place the negation within the connective itself.

To negate the first or left-hand bridi, prefix na to the JA cmavo but after the .i. To negate the second or right-hand bridi, suffix -nai to the JA cmavo. In either case, the negating word is placed on the side of the connective that is closest to the bridi being negated.

So to express the truth table FTTF, which requires O with either of the two bridi negated (not both), we can say either:

Example 14.7. 

la .djan. nanmu .inajo la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-not-a-man if-and-only-if that-named James is-a-woman.

Example 14.8. 

la .djan. nanmu .ijonai la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-a-man if-and-only-if that-named James is-not-a-woman.

The meaning of both Example 14.7 and Example 14.8 is the same as that of:

Example 14.9. 

John is a man or James is a woman, but not both.


Here is another example:

Example 14.10. 

la .djan. nanmu .ijanai la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-a-man or that-named James is-not-a-woman.

John is a man if James is a woman.


How's that again? Are those two English sentences in Example 14.10 really equivalent? In English, no. The Lojban TTFT truth function can be glossed A if B , but the if does not quite have its English sense. Example 14.10 is true so long as John is a man, even if James is not a woman; likewise, it is true just because James is not a woman, regardless of John's gender. This kind of if-then is technically known as a material conditional.

Since James is not a woman (by our assertions in Section 14.1), the English sentence John is a man if James is a woman seems to be neither true nor false, since it assumes something which is not true. It turns out to be most convenient to treat this if as TTFT, which on investigation means that Example 14.10 is true. Example 14.11 , however, is equally true:

Example 14.11. 

la .djan. ninmu .ijanai la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-a-woman if that-named James is-a-woman.

This can be thought of as a principle of consistency, and may be paraphrased as follows: If a false statement is true, any statement follows from it. All uses of English if must be considered very carefully when translating into Lojban to see if they really fit this Lojban mold.

Example 14.12 , which uses the TFTT truth function, is subject to the same rules: the stated gloss of TFTT as only if works naturally only when the right-hand bridi is false; if it is true, the left-hand bridi may be either true or false. The last gloss of Example 14.12 illustrates the use of if ... then as a more natural substitute for only if.

Example 14.12. 

la .djan. nanmu .inaja la .djeimyz. ninmu
That-named John is-not-a-man or that-named James is-a-woman.

John is a man only if James is a woman.

If John is a man, then James is a woman.


The following example illustrates the use of se to, in effect, exchange the two sentences. The normal use of se is to (in effect) transpose places of a bridi, as explained in Section 5.11.

Example 14.13. 

la .djan. nanmu .iseju la .djeimyz. ninmu

Whether or not John is a man, James is a woman.


If both na and se are present, which is legal but never necessary, na would come before se.

The full syntax of ijeks, therefore, is:

.i [na] [se] JA [nai]

where the cmavo in brackets are optional.

14.5. Forethought bridi connection

Many concepts in Lojban are expressible in two different ways, generally referred to as afterthought and forethought. Section 14.4 discussed what is called afterthought bridi logical connection. The word afterthought is used because the connective cmavo and the second bridi were added, as it were, afterwards and without changing the form of the first bridi. This form might be used by someone who makes a statement and then wishes to add or qualify that statement after it has been completed. Thus,

Example 14.14. 

la .djan. nanmu


is a complete bridi, and adding an afterthought connection to make

Example 14.15. 

la .djan. nanmu .ija la .djeimyz. ninmu

John is a man or James is a woman (or both)


provides additional information without requiring any change in the form of what has come before; changes which may not be possible or practical, especially in speaking. (The meaning, however, may be changed by the use of a negating connective.) Afterthought connectives make it possible to construct all the important truth-functional relationships in a variety of ways.

In forethought style the speaker decides in advance, before expressing the first bridi, that a logical connection will be expressed. Forethought and afterthought connectives are expressed with separate selma'o. The forethought logical connectives corresponding to afterthought ijeks are geks:

Example 14.16. 

ga la .djan. nanmu gi la .djeimyz. ninmu

Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).


ga is the cmavo which represents the A truth function in selma'o GA. The word gi does not belong to GA at all, but constitutes its own selma'o: it serves only to separate the two bridi without having any content of its own. The English translation of gagi is either ... or , but in the English form the truth function is specified both by the word either and by the word or : not so in Lojban.

Even though two bridi are being connected, geks and giks do not have any .i in them. The forethought construct binds up the two bridi into a single sentence as far as the grammar is concerned.

Some more examples of forethought bridi connection are:

Example 14.17. 

ge la .djan. nanmu gi la .djeimyz. ninmu

(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.


Example 14.18. 

gu la .djan. nanmu gi la .djeimyz. ninmu

It is true that John is a man, whether or not James is a woman.


It is worth emphasizing that Example 14.18 does not assert that James is (or is not) a woman. The gu which indicates that la .djeimyz. ninmu may be true or false is unfortunately rather remote from the bridi thus affected.

Perhaps the most important of the truth functions commonly expressed in forethought is TFTT, which can be paraphrased as if ... then ... :

Example 14.19. 

ganai la .djan. nanmu gi la .djeimyz. ninmu
Either that-named John is-not-a-man, or that-named James is-a-woman.

If John is a man, then James is a woman.


Note the placement of the nai in Example 14.19. When added to afterthought selma'o such as JA, a following nai negates the second bridi, to which it is adjacent. Since GA cmavo precede the first bridi, a following nai negates the first bridi instead.

Why does English insist on forethought in the translation of Example 14.19 ? Possibly because it would be confusing to seemingly assert a sentence and then make it conditional (which, as the Lojban form shows, involves a negation). Truth functions which involve negating the first sentence may be confusing, even to the Lojbanic understanding, when expressed using afterthought.

It must be reiterated here that not every use of English if ... then is properly translated by .i na ja or ganaigi ; anything with implications of time needs a somewhat different Lojban translation, which will be discussed in Section 14.18. Causal sentences like If you feed the pig, then it will grow are not logical connectives of any type, but rather need a translation using rinka as the selbri joining two event abstractions, thus:

Example 14.20. 

le nu do cidja dunda fi le xarju
The event-of (you food give to the pig)
cu rinka le nu ri ba banro
causes the event-of (it will grow).

Causality is discussed in far more detail in Section 9.7.

Example 14.21 and Example 14.22 illustrates a truth function, FTTF, which needs to negate either the first or the second bridi. We already understand how to negate the first bridi:

Example 14.21. 

gonai la .djan. nanmu gi la .djeimyz. ninmu

John is not a man if and only if James is a woman.

Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.


How can the second bridi be negated? By adding -nai to the gi.

Example 14.22. 

go la .djan. nanmu ginai la .djeimyz. ninmu

John is a man if and only if James is not a woman.

Either John is a man or James is a woman but not both.


A compound cmavo based on gi is called a gik; the only giks are gi itself and gi nai.

Further examples:

Example 14.23. 

ge la .djan. nanmu ginai la .djeimyz. ninmu

John is a man and James is not a woman.


Example 14.24. 

ganai la .djan. nanmu ginai la .djeimyz. ninmu

John is not a man or James is not a woman.


The syntax of geks is:

[se] GA [nai]

and of giks (which are not themselves connectives, but part of the machinery of forethought connection) is:

gi [nai]

14.6. sumti connection

Geks and ijeks are sufficient to state every possible logical connection between two bridi. However, it is often the case that two bridi to be logically connected have one or more portions in common:

Example 14.25. 

la .djan. klama le zarci .ije la .alis. klama le zarci

John goes to the market, and Alice goes to the market.


Here only a single sumti differs between the two bridi. Lojban does not require that both bridi be expressed in full. Instead, a single bridi can be given which contains both of the different sumti and uses a logical connective from a different selma'o to combine the two sumti:

Example 14.26. 

la djan .e la .alis. klama le zarci
That-named John and that-named Alice go-to the market.

Example 14.26 means exactly the same thing as Example 14.25 : one may be rigorously transformed into the other without any change of logical meaning. This rule is true in general for every different kind of logical connection in Lojban; all of them, with one exception (see Section 14.12), can always be transformed into a logical connection between sentences that expresses the same truth function.

The afterthought logical connectives between sumti are eks, which contain a connective cmavo of selma'o A. If ijeks were used in Example 14.26 , the meaning would be changed:

Example 14.27. 

la .djan. .ije
That-named John [is/does-something]. And
la .alis. klama le zarci
that-named Alice goes-to the market.

leaving the reader uncertain why John is mentioned at all.

Any ek may be used between sumti, even if there is no direct English equivalent:

Example 14.28. 

la .djan. .o la .alis. klama le zarci
That-named John if-and-only-if that-named Alice goes-to the market.

John goes to the market if, and only if, Alice does.


The second line of Example 14.27 is highly stilted English, but the first line (of which it is a literal translation) is excellent Lojban.

What about forethought sumti connection? As is the case for bridi connection, geks are appropriate. They are not the only selma'o of forethought logical-connectives, but are the most commonly used ones.

Example 14.29. 

ga la .djan. gi la .alis. klama le zarci

Either John or Alice (or both) goes to the market.


Of course, eks include all the same patterns of compound cmavo that ijeks do. When na or se is part of an ek, a special writing convention is invoked, as in the following example:

Example 14.30. 

la .djan. na.a la .alis. klama le zarci
That-named John only-if that-named Alice goes-to the market.

John goes to the market only if Alice does.


Note the period in na .a. The cmavo of A begin with vowels, and therefore must always be preceded by a pause. It is conventional to write all connective compounds as single words (with no spaces), but this pause must still be marked in writing as in speech; otherwise, the na and .a would tend to run together.

14.7. More than two propositions

So far we have seen logical connectives used to connect exactly two sentences. How about connecting three or more? Is this possible in Lojban? The answer is yes, subject to some warnings and some restrictions.

Of the four primitive truth functions A , E , O , and U , all but O have the same truth values no matter how their component sentences are associated in pairs. Therefore,

Example 14.31. 

mi dotco .ije mi ricfu .ije mi nanmu
I am-German. And I am-rich. And I am-a-man.

means that all three component sentences are true. Likewise,

Example 14.32. 

mi dotco .ija mi ricfu .ija mi nanmu
I am-German. Or I am-rich. Or I am-a-man.

means that one or more of the component sentences is true.

O , however, is different. Working out the truth table for

Example 14.33. 

mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu .ijo mi nanmu
I am-German. If-and-only-if I am-rich. If-and-only-if I am-a-man.

shows that Example 14.33 does not mean that either I am all three of these things or none of them; instead, an accurate translation would be:

Of the three properties – German-ness, wealth, and manhood – I possess either exactly one or else all three.

Because of the counterintuitiveness of this outcome, it is safest to avoid O with more than two sentences. Likewise, the connectives which involve negation also have unexpected truth values when used with more than two sentences.

In fact, no combination of logical connectives can produce the all or none interpretation intended (but not achieved) by Example 14.33 without repeating one of the bridi. See Example 14.48.

There is an additional difficulty with the use of more than two sentences. What is the meaning of:

Example 14.34. 

mi nelci la .djan. .ije mi nelci la .martas.
I like that-named John. And I like that-named Martha.
.ija mi nelci la .meris.
Or I like that-named Mary.

Does this mean:

Example 14.35. 

I like John, and I like either Martha or Mary or both.


Or is the correct translation:

Example 14.36. 

Either I like John and I like Martha, or I like Mary, or both.


Example 14.36 is the correct translation of Example 14.34. The reason is that Lojban logical connectives pair off from the left, like many constructs in the language. This rule, called the left-grouping rule, is easy to forget, especially when intuition pulls the other way. Forethought connectives are not subject to this problem:

Example 14.37. 

ga ge mi nelci la .djan.
Either (Both I like that-named John
gi mi nelci la .martas.
and I like that-named Martha)
gi mi nelci la .meris.
or I like that-named Mary.

is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.34 , whereas

Example 14.38. 

ge mi nelci la .djan.
Both I like that-named John
gi ga mi nelci la .martas.
and (Either I like that-named Martha
gi mi nelci la .meris.
or I like that-named Mary).

is not equivalent to Example 14.34 , but is instead a valid translation into Lojban, using forethought, of Example 14.35.

14.8. Grouping of afterthought connectives

There are several ways in Lojban to render Example 14.35 using afterthought only. The simplest method is to make use of the cmavo bo (of selma'o BO). This cmavo has several functions in Lojban, but is always associated with high precedence and short scope. In particular, if bo is placed after an ijek, the result is a grammatically distinct kind of ijek which overrides the regular left-grouping rule. Connections marked with bo are interpreted before connections not so marked. Example 14.39 is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.38 :

Example 14.39. 

mi nelci la .djan. .ije mi nelci la .martas.
I like that-named John, and I like that-named Martha
.ijabo mi nelci la .meris.
or I like that-named Mary.

The English translation feebly indicates with a comma what the Lojban marks far more clearly: the I like Martha and I like Mary sentences are joined by .i ja first, before the result is joined to I like John by .i je.

Eks can have bo attached in exactly the same way, so that Example 14.40 is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.39 :

Example 14.40. 

mi nelci la .djan. .e la .martas. .abo la .meris.


Forethought connectives, however, never can be suffixed with bo , for every use of forethought connectives clearly indicates the intended pattern of grouping.

What happens if bo is used on both connectives, giving them the same high precedence, as in Example 14.41 ?

Example 14.41. 

mi nelci la .djan. .ebo la .martas. .abo la .meris.


Does this wind up meaning the same as Example 14.34 and Example 14.36 ? Not at all. A second rule relating to bo is that where several bo -marked connectives are used in succession, the normal Lojban left-grouping rule is replaced by a right-grouping rule. As a result, Example 14.41 in fact means the same as Example 14.39 and Example 14.40. This rule may be occasionally exploited for special effects, but is tricky to keep straight; in writing intended to be easy to understand, multiple consecutive connectives marked with bo should be avoided.

The use of bo , therefore, gets tricky in complex connections of more than three sentences. Looking back at the English translations of Example 14.37 and Example 14.38 , parentheses were used to clarify the grouping. These parentheses have their Lojban equivalents, two sets of them actually. tu'e and tu'u are used with ijeks, and ke and ke'e with eks and other connectives to be discussed later. ( ke and ke'e are also used in other roles in the language, but always as grouping markers). Consider the English sentence:

Example 14.42. 

I kiss you and you kiss me, if I love you and you love me.


where the semantics tells us that the instances of and are meant to have higher precedence than that of if. If we wish to express Example 14.42 in afterthought, we can say:

Example 14.43. 

mi cinba do .ije[bo] do cinba mi
I kiss you and you kiss me,
.ijanai mi prami do .ijebo do prami mi
if I love you and you love me.

marking two of the ijeks with bo for high precedence. (The first bo is not strictly necessary, because of the left-grouping rule, and is shown here in brackets.)

But it may be clearer to use explicit parenthesis words and say:

Example 14.44. 

tu'e mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi tu'u
( I kiss you and you kiss me )
.ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]
if ( I love you and you love me ).

where the tu'etu'u pairs set off the structure. The cmavo tu'u is an elidable terminator, and its second occurrence in Example 14.44 is bracketed, because all terminators may be elided at the end of a text.

In addition, parentheses are a general solution: multiple parentheses may be nested inside one another, and additional afterthought material may be added without upsetting the existing structure. Neither of these two advantages apply to bo grouping. In general, afterthought constructions trade generality for simplicity.

Because of the left-grouping rule, the first set of tu'etu'u parentheses may actually be left off altogether, producing:

Example 14.45. 

mi cinba do .ije do cinba mi
I kiss you and you kiss me
.ijanai tu'e mi prami do .ije do prami mi [tu'u]
if ( I love you and you love me ).

What about parenthesized sumti connection? Consider

Example 14.46. 

I walk to either the market and the house, or the school and the office.


Two pairs of parentheses, analogous to Example 14.44 , would seem to be the right approach. However, it is a rule of Lojban grammar that a sumti may not begin with ke , so the first set of parentheses must be omitted, producing Example 14.47 , which is instead parallel to Example 14.45 :

Example 14.47. 

mi dzukla le zarci .e le zdani
I walk-to the market and the house
.a ke le ckule .e le briju [ke'e]
or ( the school and the office ).

If sumti were allowed to begin with ke , unavoidable ambiguities would result, so ke grouping of sumti is allowed only just after a logical connective. This rule does not apply to tu'e grouping of bridi, as Example 14.44 shows.

Now we have enough facilities to handle the problem of Example 14.33 : I am German, rich, and a man – or else none of these. The following paraphrase has the correct meaning:

Example 14.48. 

[tu'e] mi dotco .ijo mi ricfu [tu'u]
( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-rich )
.ije tu'e mi dotco .ijo mi nanmu [tu'u]
and ( I am-German if-and-only-if I am-a-man ).

The truth table, when worked out, produces T if and only if all three component sentences are true or all three are false.

14.9. Compound bridi

So far we have seen how to handle two sentences that need have no similarity at all (bridi connection) and sentences that are identical except for a difference in one sumti (sumti connection). It would seem natural to ask how to logically connect sentences that are identical except for having different selbri.

Surprise! Lojban provides no logical connective that is designed to handle selbri and nothing else. Instead, selbri connection is provided as part of a more general-purpose mechanism called compound bridi. Compound bridi result from logically connecting sentences that differ in their selbri and possibly some of their sumti.

The simplest cases result when the x1 sumti is the only common point:

Example 14.49. 

mi klama le zarci .ije mi nelci la .djan.
I go-to the market, and I like that-named John.

is equivalent in meaning to the compound bridi:

Example 14.50. 

mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la .djan.
I go-to the market and like that-named John.

As Example 14.50 indicates, giheks are used in afterthought to create compound bridi; gi'e is the gihek corresponding to and. The actual phrases klama le zarci and nelci la .djan. that the gihek connects are known as bridi-tails , because they represent (in this use) the tail end of a bridi, including the selbri and any following sumti, but excluding any sumti that precede the selbri:

Example 14.51. 

mi ricfu gi'e klama le zarci
I am-rich and go-to the market.

In Example 14.51 , the first bridi-tail is ricfu , a simple selbri, and the second bridi-tail is klama le zarci , a selbri with one following sumti.

Suppose that more than a single sumti is identical between the two sentences:

Example 14.52. 

mi dunda le cukta do .ije mi lebna lo jdini do
I give the book to-you, and I take some money from-you.

In Example 14.52 , the first and last sumti of each bridi are identical; the selbri and the second sumti are different. By moving the final sumti to the beginning, a form analogous to Example 14.50 can be achieved:

Example 14.53. 

fi do fa mi dunda le cukta
to/from you I give the book
gi'e lebna lo jdini
and take some money.

where the fi does not have an exact English translation because it merely places do in the third place of both lebna and dunda. However, a form that preserves natural sumti order also exists in Lojban. Giheks connect two bridi-tails, but also allow sumti to be added following the bridi-tail. These sumti are known as tail-terms, and apply to both bridi. The straightforward gihek version of Example 14.52 therefore is:

Example 14.54. 

mi dunda le cukta gi'e lebna lo jdini vau do
I (give the book) and (take some money) to/from-you.

The vau (of selma'o VAU) serves to separate the bridi-tail from the tail-terms. Every bridi-tail is terminated by an elidable vau , but only in connection with compound bridi is it ever necessary to express this vau. Thus:

Example 14.55. 

mi klama le zarci [vau]
I go-to the market.

has a single elided vau , and Example 14.50 is equivalent to:

Example 14.56. 

mi klama le zarci [vau] gi'e nelci la .djan. [vau] [vau]


where the double vau at the end of Example 14.56 terminates both the right-hand bridi-tail and the unexpressed tail-terms.

A final use of giheks is to combine bridi-tails used as complete sentences, the Lojban observative:

Example 14.57. 

klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le briju
A-goer to-the market and a-walker to-the office.

Since x1 is omitted in both of the bridi underlying Example 14.57 , this compound bridi does not necessarily imply that the goer and the walker are the same. Only the presence of an explicit x1 (other than zo'e , which is equivalent to omission) can force the goer and the walker to be identical.

A strong argument for this convention is provided by analysis of the following example:

Example 14.58. 

klama la .nu,IORK.
A-goer to-that-named New-York
la .finyks.
from-that-named Phoenix
gi'e klama la .nu,IORK.
and a-goer to-that-named New-York
la .rom.
from-that-named Rome.

If the rule were that the x1 places of the two underlying bridi were considered identical, then (since there is nothing special about x1), the unspecified x4 (route) and x5 (means) places would also have to be the same, leading to the absurd result that the route from Phoenix to New York is the same as the route from Rome to New York. Inserting da , meaning roughly something , into the x1 place cures the problem:

Example 14.59. 

da klama la .nu,IORK. la .finyks.
Something is-a-goer to-that-named New-York from-that-named Phoenix
gi'e klama la .nu,IORK. la .rom.
and is-a-goer to-that-named New-York from-that-named Rome.

The syntax of giheks is:

[na] [se] GIhA [nai]

which is exactly parallel to the syntax of eks.

14.10. Multiple compound bridi

Giheks can be combined with bo in the same way as eks:

Example 14.60. 

mi nelci la .djan. gi'e nelci la .martas. gi'abo nelci la .meris.

I like John and ( like Martha or like Mary ).


is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.39 and Example 14.40. Likewise, keke'e grouping can be used after giheks:

Example 14.61. 

mi dzukla le zarci
I walk-to the market
gi'e dzukla le zdani
and walk-to the house,
gi'a ke dzukla le ckule
or ( walk-to the school
gi'e dzukla le briju [ke'e]
and walk-to the office. )

is the gihek version of Example 14.47. The same rule about using keke'e bracketing only just after a connective applies to bridi-tails as to sumti, so the first two bridi-tails in Example 14.61 cannot be explicitly grouped; implicit left-grouping suffices to associate them.

Each of the pairs of bridi-tails joined by multiple giheks can have its own set of tail-terms:

Example 14.62. 

mi dejni lo rupnu la .djan.
[If] I owe some currency-units to-that-named John,
.inaja mi dunda le cukta la .djan.
then I give the book to-that-named John
.ijabo mi lebna le cukta la .djan.
or I take the book from-that-named John.

is equivalent in meaning to:

Example 14.63. 

mi dejni lo rupnu nagi'a dunda
[If] I owe some currency-units then (give
gi'abo lebna vau le cukta vau la .djan.
or take) a book to/from-that-named John.

The literal English translation in Example 14.63 is almost unintelligible, but the Lojban is perfectly grammatical. mi fills the x1 place of all three selbri; lo rupnu is the x2 of dejni , whereas le cukta is a tail-term shared between dunda and lebna ; la .djan. is a tail-term shared by dejni and by dunda gi'abo lebna. In this case, greater clarity is probably achieved by moving la .djan. to the beginning of the sentence, as in Example 14.53 :

Example 14.64. 

fi la .djan. fa mi dejni lo rupnu
To/from that-named John, [if] I owe some currency-units
nagi'a dunda gi'abo lebna vau le cukta
then [I] give or take the book.

Finally, what about forethought logical connection of bridi-tails? There is no direct mechanism for the purpose. Instead, Lojban grammar allows a pair of forethought-connected sentences to function as a single bridi-tail, and of course the sentences need not have terms before their selbri. For example:

Example 14.65. 

mi ge klama le zarci gi nelci la .djan.
I both go-to the market and like that-named John.

is equivalent in meaning to Example 14.50.

Of course, either of the connected sentences may contain giheks:

Example 14.66. 

mi ge klama le zarci gi'e dzukla le zdani
I both (go to-the market and walk to-the house)
gi nelci la .djan.
and like that-named John.

The entire gek-connected sentence pair may be negated as a whole by prefixing na :

Example 14.67. 

mi na ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le zdani
[False!] I both go-to the market and walk-to the house.

Since a pair of sentences joined by geks is the equivalent of a bridi-tail, it may be followed by tail terms. The forethought equivalent of Example 14.54 is:

Example 14.68. 

mi ge dunda le cukta
I both (give the book)
gi lebna lo jdini vau do
and (take some money ) to/from-you.

Here is a pair of gek-connected observatives, a forethought equivalent of Example 14.57 :

Example 14.69. 

ge klama le zarci gi dzukla le briju
Both a-goer to-the market and a-walker to-the office.

Finally, here is an example of gek-connected sentences with both shared and unshared terms before their selbri:

Example 14.70. 

mi gonai le zarci cu klama gi le bisli cu dansu
I either-but-not-both to-the office go or on-the ice dance.

I either go to the office or dance on the ice (but not both).


14.11. Termset logical connection

So far we have seen sentences that differ in all components, and require bridi connection; sentences that differ in one sumti only, and permit sumti connection; and sentences that differ in the selbri and possibly one or more sumti, and permit bridi-tail connection. Termset logical connectives are employed for sentences that differ in more than one sumti but not in the selbri, such as:

Example 14.71. 

I go to the market from the office and to the house from the school.


The Lojban version of Example 14.71 requires two termsets joined by a logical connective. A term is either a sumti or a sumti preceded by a tense or modal tag such as pu or bai. Afterthought termsets are formed by linking terms together by inserting the cmavo ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each of them. Furthermore, the logical connective (which is a jek) must be prefixed by the cmavo pe'e (of selma'o PEhE). (We could refer to the combination of pe'e and a jek as a pehejek , I suppose.)

Example 14.72. 

mi klama le zarci ce'e le briju
I go to-the market [plus] from-the office
pe'e je le zdani ce'e le ckule
[joint] and to-the house [plus] from-the school.

The literal translation uses [plus] to indicate the termset connective, and [joint] to indicate the position of the logical connective joint. As usual, there is an equivalent bridi-connection form:

Example 14.73. 

mi klama le zarci le briju
I go to-the market from-the office,
.ije mi klama le zdani le ckule
and I go to-the house from-the school.

which illustrates that the two bridi differ in the x2 and x3 places only.

What happens if the two joined sets of terms are of unequal length? Expanding to bridi connection will always make clear which term goes in which place of which bridi. It can happen that a sumti may fall in the x2 place of one bridi and the x3 place of another:

Example 14.74. 

mi pe'e ja do ce'e le zarci cu klama le briju
I [joint] or you [plus] to-the market go to/from-the office.

can be clearly understood by expansion to:

Example 14.75. 

mi klama le briju .ija do le zarci cu klama
I go to-the office, or you to-the market go
le briju
from-the office.

So le briju is your origin but my destination, and thus falls in the x2 and x3 places of klama simultaneously! This is legal because even though there is only one selbri, klama , there are two distinct bridi expressed here. In addition, mi in Example 14.74 is serving as a termset containing only one term. An analogous paradox applies to compound bridi with tail-terms and unequal numbers of sumti within the connected bridi-tails:

Example 14.76. 

mi klama le zarci gi'e dzukla vau le briju
I ( go to-the market and walk ) to/from-the office.

means that I go to the market from the office, and I walk to the office; le briju is the x3 place of klama and the x2 place of dzukla.

Forethought termsets also exist, and use nu'i of selma'o NUhI to signal the beginning and nu'u of selma'o NUhU (an elidable terminator) to signal the end. Nothing is inserted between the individual terms: they simply sit side-by-side. To make a logical connection in a forethought termset, use a gek, with the gek just after the nu'i , and an extra nu'u just before the gik:

Example 14.77. 

mi klama nu'i ge le zarci le briju
I go [start-termset] both to-the market from-the office
nu'u gi le zdani le ckule [nu'u]
[joint] and to-the house from-the school [end-termset].

Note that even though two termsets are being connected, only one nu'i is used.

The grammatical uses of termsets that do not contain logical connectives are explained in Section 9.8 , Section 10.25 , and Section 16.7.

14.12. Logical connection within tanru

As noted at the beginning of Section 14.9 , there is no logical connective in Lojban that joins selbri and nothing but selbri. However, it is possible to have logical connectives within a selbri, forming a kind of tanru that involves a logical connection. Consider the simple tanru blanu zdani , blue house. Now anything that is a blue ball, in the most ordinary understanding of the phrase at least, is both blue and a ball. And indeed, instead of blanu bolci , Lojbanists can say blanu je bolci , using a jek connective within the tanru. (We saw jeks used in Section 14.11 also, but there they were always prefixed by pe'e ; in this section they are used alone.) Here is a pair of examples:

Example 14.78. 

ti blanu zdani
This is-a-blue-type-of house.

Example 14.79. 

ti blanu je zdani
This is-blue and is-a-house.

But of course Example 14.78 and Example 14.79 are not necessarily equivalent in meaning! It is the most elementary point about Lojban tanru that Example 14.78 might just as well mean

Example 14.80. 

This is a house for blue inhabitants.


and Example 14.79 certainly is not equivalent in meaning to Example 14.80.

A full explanation of logical connection within tanru belongs rather to a discussion of selbri structure than to logical connectives in general. Why? Because although Example 14.79 happens to mean the same as

Example 14.81. 

ti blanu gi'e zdani


and therefore as

Example 14.82. 

ti blanu .ije ti zdani


the rule of expansion into separate bridi simply does not always work for tanru connection. Supposing Alice to be a person who lives in blue houses, then

Example 14.83. 

la .alis. cu blanu je zdani prenu
That-named Alice is-a-( blue and house ) type-of-person.

would be true, because tanru grouping with a jek has higher precedence than unmarked tanru grouping, but:

Example 14.84. 

la .alis. cu blanu prenu
That-named Alice is-a blue person,
.ije la .alis. cu zdani prenu
and that-named Alice is-a house person.

is probably false, because the blueness is associated with the house, not with Alice, even leaving aside the question of what it means to say Alice is a blue person. (Perhaps she belongs to the Blue team, or is wearing blue clothes.) The semantic ambiguity of tanru make such logical manipulations impossible.

It suffices to note here, then, a few purely grammatical points about tanru logical connection. bo may be appended to jeks as to eks, with the same rules:

Example 14.85. 

la .teris. cu ricfu je nakni jabo fetsi
That-named Terry is-rich and (male or female).

The components of tanru may be grouped with ke both before and after a logical connective:

Example 14.86. 

la .teris. cu [ke] ricfu ja pindi [ke'e]
That-named Terry ( is-rich or is-poor )
je ke nakni ja fetsi [ke'e]
and ( male or female ).

where the first keke'e pair may be omitted altogether by the rule of left-grouping, but is optionally permitted. In any case, the last instance of ke'e may be elided.

The syntax of jeks is:

[na] [se] JA [nai]

parallel to eks and giheks.

Forethought tanru connection does not use geks, but uses guheks instead. Guheks have exactly the same form as geks:

[se] GUhA [nai]

Using guheks in tanru connection (rather than geks) resolves what would otherwise be an unacceptable ambiguity between bridi-tail and tanru connection:

Example 14.87. 

la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi fetsi
That-named Alice is-both rich and female.

Note that giks are used with guheks in exactly the same way they are used with geks. Like jeks, guheks bind more closely than unmarked tanru grouping does:

Example 14.88. 

la .alis. gu'e blanu gi zdani prenu
That-named Alice is-a-(both blue and a-house) type-of-person.

is the forethought version of Example 14.83.

A word of caution about the use of logically connected tanru within descriptions. English-based intuition can lead the speaker astray. In correctly reducing

Example 14.89. 

mi viska pa mlatu .ije mi viska pa gerku
I see a cat, and I see a dog.

to

Example 14.90. 

mi viska pa mlatu .e pa gerku
I see a cat and a dog.

there is a great temptation to reduce further to:

Example 14.91. 

mi viska pa mlatu je gerku
I see a cat and dog.

But Example 14.91 means that you see one thing which is both a cat and a dog simultaneously! A mlatu je gerku is a catdog, a presumably non-existent creature who is both a mlatu and a gerku.

14.13. Truth questions and connective questions

So far we have addressed only sentences which are statements. Lojban, like all human languages, needs also to deal with sentences which are questions. There are many ways of asking questions in Lojban, but some of these (like questions about quantity, tense, and emotion) are discussed in other chapters.

The simplest kind of question is of the type Is it true that ... where some statement follows. This type is called a truth question , and can be represented in English by Example 14.92 :

Example 14.92. 

Is it true that Fido is a dog?

Is Fido a dog?


Note the two formulations. English truth questions can always be formed by prefixing Is is true that to the beginning of a statement; there is also usually a more idiomatic way involving putting the verb before its subject. Is Fido a dog? is the truth question corresponding to Fido is a dog. In Lojban, the equivalent mechanism is to prefix the cmavo xu (of selma'o UI) to the statement:

Example 14.93. 

xu la .faidon. gerku
Is-it-true-that that-named Fido is-a-dog?

Example 14.92 and Example 14.93 are equivalent in meaning.

A truth question can be answered yes or no , depending on the truth or falsity, respectively, of the underlying statement. The standard way of saying yes in Lojban is go'i and of saying no is na go'i. (The reasons for this rule are explained in Section 7.6.) In answer to Example 14.93 , the possible answers are:

Example 14.94. 

go'i

Fido is a dog.


and

Example 14.95. 

nago'i

Fido is not a dog.


Some English questions seemingly have the same form as the truth questions so far discussed. Consider

Example 14.96. 

Is Fido a dog or a cat?


Superficially, Example 14.96 seems like a truth question with the underlying statement:

Example 14.97. 

Fido is a dog or a cat.


By translating Example 14.97 into Lojban and prefixing xu to signal a truth question, we get:

Example 14.98. 

xu la .faidon. gerku gi'onai mlatu
Is-it-true-that that-named Fido is-a-dog or is-a-cat (but not both)?

Given that Fido really is either a dog or a cat, the appropriate answer would be go'i ; if Fido were a fish, the appropriate answer would be na go'i.

But that is not what an English-speaker who utters Example 14.96 is asking! The true significance of Example 14.96 is that the speaker desires to know the truth value of either of the two underlying bridi (it is presupposed that only one is true).

Lojban has an elegant mechanism for rendering this kind of question which is very unlike that used in English. Instead of asking about the truth value of the connected bridi, Lojban users ask about the truth function which connects them. This is done by using a special question cmavo: there is one of these for each of the logical connective selma'o, as shown by the following table:

ge'i

GA

forethought connective question

gi'i

GIhA

bridi-tail connective question

gu'i

GUhA

tanru forethought connective question

je'i

JA

tanru connective question

ji

A

sumti connective question

(This list unfortunately departs from the pretty regularity of the other cmavo for logical connection. The two-syllable selma'o, GIhA and GUhA, make use of the cmavo ending in -i which is not used for a truth function, but gi and .i were not available, and different cmavo had to be chosen. This table must simply be memorized, like most other non-connective cmavo assignments.)

One correct translation of Example 14.96 employs a question gihek:

Example 14.99. 

la .alis. gerku gi'i mlatu
That-named Alice is-a-dog [truth-function?] is-a-cat?

Here are some plausible answers:

Example 14.100. 

nagi'e

Alice is not a dog and is a cat.


Example 14.101. 

gi'enai

Alice is a dog and is not a cat.


Example 14.102. 

nagi'enai

Alice is not a dog and is not a cat.


Example 14.103. 

nagi'o
gi'onai

Alice is a dog or is a cat but not both (I'm not saying which).


Example 14.103 is correct but uncooperative.

As usual, Lojban questions are answered by filling in the blank left by the question. Here the blank is a logical connective, and therefore it is grammatical in Lojban to utter a bare logical connective without anything for it to connect.

The answer gi'e , meaning that Alice is a dog and is a cat, is impossible in the real world, but for:

Example 14.104. 

do djica tu'a loi ckafi
You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee
ji loi tcati
[truth-function?] a-mass-of tea?

Do you want coffee or tea?


the answer .e , meaning that I want both, is perfectly plausible, if not necessarily polite.

The forethought questions ge'i and gu'i are used like the others, but ambiguity forbids the use of isolated forethought connectives as answers – they sound like the start of forethought-connected bridi. So although Example 14.105 is the forethought version of Example 14.104 :

Example 14.105. 

do djica tu'a ge'i loi ckafi
You desire something-about [truth-function?] a-mass-of coffee
gi loi tcati
[or] a-mass-of tea?

the answer must be in afterthought form.

There are natural languages, notably Chinese, which employ the Lojbanic form of connective question. The Chinese sentence

Example 14.106. 

你走还是跑?
Nǐ zǒu háishì pǎo?
You walk [or?] run?

means Do you walk or run? , and is exactly parallel to the Lojban:

Example 14.107. 

do cadzu gi'i bajra
You walk [or?] run?

However, Chinese does not use logical connectives in the reply to such a question, so the resemblance, though striking, is superficial.

Truth questions may be used in bridi connection. This form of sentence is perfectly legitimate, and can be interpreted by using the convention that a truth question is true if the answer is yes and false if the answer is no. Analogously, an imperative sentence (involving the special pro-sumti ko , which means you but marks the sentence as a command) is true if the command is obeyed, and false otherwise. A request of Abraham Lincoln's may be translated thus:

Example 14.108. 

ganai ti ckafi gi ko bevri loi tcati mi
If this is-coffee then [you!] bring a-mass-of tea to-me,
.ije ganai ti tcati gi ko bevri loi ckafi mi
and if this is-tea then [you!] bring a-mass-of coffee to-me.

If this is coffee, bring me tea; but if this is tea, bring me coffee.


In logical terms, however, but is the same as and ; the difference is that the sentence after a but is felt to be in tension or opposition to the sentence before it. Lojban represents this distinction by adding the discursive cmavo ku'i (of selma'o UI), which is explained in Section 13.12 , to the logical .i je.)

14.14. Non-logical connectives

Way back in Section 14.1 , the point was made that not every use of English and , if ... then , and so on represents a Lojban logical connective. In particular, consider the and of:

Example 14.109. 

John and Alice carried the piano.


Given the nature of pianos, this probably means that John carried one end and Alice the other. So it is not true that:

Example 14.110. 

John carried the piano, and Alice carried the piano.


which would mean that each of them carried the piano by himself/herself. Lojban deals with this particular linguistic phenomenon as a mass. John and Alice are joined together into a mass, John-and-Alice, and it is this mass which carried the piano, not either of them separately. The cmavo joi (of selma'o JOI) is used to join two or more components into a mass:

Example 14.111. 

la .djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno
That-named John massed-with that-named Alice carry the piano.

Example 14.111 covers the case mentioned, where John and Alice divide the labor; it also could mean that John did all the hauling and Alice did the supervising. This possibility arises because the properties of a mass are the properties of its components, which can lead to apparent contradictions: if John is small and Alice is large, then John-and-Alice is both small and large. Masses are also discussed in Section 6.3.

Grammatically, joi can appear between two sumti (like an ek) or between two tanru components (like a jek). This flexibility must be paid for in the form of occasional terminators that cannot be elided:

Example 14.112. 

le nanmu ku joi le ninmu [ku] cu klama le zarci
The man massed-with the woman go-to the market.

The cmavo ku is the elidable terminator for le , which can almost always be elided, but not in this case. If the first ku were elided here, Lojban's parsing rules would see le nanmu joi and assume that another tanru component is to follow; since the second le cannot be part of a tanru, a parsing error results. No such problem can occur with logical connectives, because an ek signals a following sumti and a jek a following tanru component unambiguously.

Single or compound cmavo involving members of selma'o JOI are called joiks, by analogy with the names for logical connectives. It is not grammatical to use joiks to connect bridi-tails.

In tanru, joi has the connotation mixed with , as in the following example:

Example 14.113. 

ti blanu joi xunre bolci
This is-a-(blue mixed-with red) ball.

This is a blue and red ball.


Here the ball is neither wholly blue nor wholly red, but partly blue and partly red. Its blue/redness is a mass property. (Just how blue something has to be to count as wholly blue is an unsettled question, though. A blanu zdani may be so even though not every part of it is blue.)

There are several other cmavo in selma'o JOI which can be used in the same grammatical constructions. Not all of them are well-defined as yet in all contexts. All have clear definitions as sumti connectives; those definitions are shown in the following table:

A joi B the mass with components A and B
A ce B the set with elements A and B
A ce'o B the sequence with elements A and B in order
A se ce'o B the sequence with elements B and A in order
A jo'u B A and B considered jointly
A fa'u B A and B respectively
A se fa'u B B and A respectively
A jo'e B the union of sets A and B
A ku'a B the intersection of sets A and B
A pi'u B the cross product of sets A and B
A se pi'u B the cross product of sets B and A

The cmavo se is grammatical before any JOI cmavo, but only useful with those that have inherent order. Here are some examples of joiks:

Example 14.114. 

mi cuxna la .alis. la .frank.
I choose that-named Alice from-that-named Frank
ce la .alis. ce la .djeimyz.
and-member that-named Alice and-member that-named James.

I choose Alice from among Frank, Alice, and James.


The x3 place of cuxna is a set from which the choice is being made. A set is an abstract object which is determined by specifying its members. Unlike those of a mass, the properties of a set are unrelated to its members' properties: the set of all rats is large (since many rats exist), but the rats themselves are small. This chapter does not attempt to explain set theory (the mathematical study of sets) in detail: explaining propositional logic is quite enough for one chapter!

In Example 14.114 we specify that set by listing the members with ce joining them.

Example 14.115. 

ti liste mi ce'o do ce'o la .djan.
This is-a-list-of me and-sequence you and-sequence that-named John.

This is a list of you, me, and John.


The x2 place of liste is a sequence of the things which are mentioned in the list. (It is worth pointing out that lo liste means a physical object such as a grocery list: a purely abstract list is lo porsi , a sequence.) Here the three sumti connected by ce'o are in a definite order, not just lumped together in a set or a mass.

So joi , ce , and ce'o are parallel, in that the sumti connected are taken to be individuals, and the result is something else: a mass, a set, or a sequence respectively. The cmavo jo'u serves as a fourth element in this pattern: the sumti connected are individuals, and the result is still individuals – but inseparably so. The normal Lojban way of saying that James and George are brothers is:

Example 14.116. 

la .djeimyz. bruna la .djordj.
That-named James is-the-brother-of that-named George.

possibly adding a discursive element meaning and vice versa. However, James and George are brothers cannot be correctly translated as:

Example 14.117. 

la .djeimyz. .e la .djordj. bruna
That-named James and that-named George is-a-brother.

since that expands to two bridi and means that James is a brother and so is George, but not necessarily of each other. If the .e is changed to jo'u , however, the meaning of Example 14.116 is preserved:

Example 14.118. 

la .djeimyz. jo'u
That-named James in-common-with that-named
la .djordj. cu remei bruna
George are-a-twosome type-of-brothers.

The tanru remei bruna is not strictly necessary in this sentence, but is used to make clear that we are not saying that James and George are both brothers of some third person not specified. Alternatively, we could turn the tanru around: the x1 place of re mei is a mass with two components, leading to:

Example 14.119. 

la .djeimyz. joi
That-named James massed-with
la .djordj. cu bruna remei
that-named George are-a-brother type-of-twosome.

where joi is used to create the necessary mass.

Likewise, fa'u can be used to put two individuals together where order matters. Typically, there will be another fa'u somewhere else in the same bridi:

Example 14.120. 

la .djeimyz. fa'u la .djordj.
That-named James jointly-in-order-with that-named George
prami la .meris. fa'u la .martas.
loves that-named Mary jointly-in-order-with that-named Martha.

James and George love Mary and Martha, respectively.


Here the information carried by the English adverb respectively , namely that James loves Mary and George loves Martha, is divided between the two occurrences of fa'u. If both uses of fa'u were to be changed to .e , we would get:

Example 14.121. 

la .djeimyz. .e la .djordj. prami
That-named James and that-named George love
la .meris. .e la .martas.
that-named Mary and that-named Martha.

which can be transformed to four bridi:

Example 14.122. 

la .djeimyz. prami la .meris. .ije la .djordj. prami
That-named James loves that-named Mary, and that-named George loves
la .meris. .ije la .djeimyz. prami la .martas.
that-named Mary, and that-named James loves that-named Martha,
.ije la .djordj. prami la .martas.
and that-named George loves that-named Martha.

which represents quite a different state of affairs from Example 14.120. The meaning of Example 14.120 can also be conveyed by a termset:

Example 14.123. 

la .djeimyz. ce'e la .meris. pe'e
That-named James [plus] that-named Mary [joint]
je la .djordj. ce'e la .martas. prami
and that-named George [plus] that-named Martha loves.

at the expense of re-ordering the list of names so as to make the pairs explicit. This option is not available when one of the lists is only described rather than enumerated:

Example 14.124. 

la .djeimyz. fa'u la .djordj. prami re mensi
That-named James and-respectively that-named George love two sisters.

which conveys that James loves one sister and George the other, though we are not able to tell which of the sisters is which.

14.15. More about non-logical connectives

The final three JOI cmavo, jo'e , ku'a , and pi'u , are probably only useful when talking explicitly about sets. They represent three standard set operators usually called union , intersection , and cross product (also known as Cartesian product). The union of two sets is a set containing all the members that are in either set; the intersection of two sets is a set containing all the members that are in both sets. The cross product of two sets is the set of all possible ordered pairs, where each ordered pair contains a single element from the first set followed by a single element from the second. This may seem very abstract; hopefully, the following examples will help:

Example 14.125. 

lo'i ricfu ku jo'e lo'i dotco cu barda
The-set-of rich-things union the-set-of German-things is-large.

Example 14.126. 

lo'i ricfu ku ku'a lo'i dotco cu cmalu
The-set-of rich-things intersection the-set-of German-things is-small.

There is a parallelism between logic and set theory that makes Example 14.125 and Example 14.126 equivalent respectively to:

Example 14.127. 

lo'i ricfu ja dotco cu barda
The-set-of (rich-things or German-things) is-large.

and

Example 14.128. 

lo'i ricfu je dotco cu cmalu
The-set-of (rich-things and German-things) is-small.

The following example uses se remei , which is a set (not a mass) of two elements:

Example 14.129. 

la .djeimyz. ce[bo] la .djordj. pi'u
That-named James and-set that-named George cross-product
la .meris. cebo la .martas. cu prami se remei
that-named Mary and-set that-named Martha are-lover type-of-pairs.

means that each of the pairs James/Mary, George/Mary, James/Martha, and George/Martha love each other. Therefore it is similar in meaning to Example 14.121 ; however, that example speaks only of the men loving the women, not vice versa.

Joiks may be combined with bo or with ke in the same way as eks and jeks; this allows grouping of non-logical connections between sumti and tanru units, in complete parallelism with logical connections:

Example 14.130. 

mi joibo do ce la .djan. joibo la .djein.
(I massed-with you) and (that-named John massed-with that-named Jane)
cu gunma se remei
are-a-mass type-of-two-set

asserts that there is a set of two items each of which is a mass.

Non-logical connection is permitted at the joint of a termset; this is useful for associating more than one sumti or tagged sumti with each side of the non-logical connection. The place structure of casnu is:

casnu the mass x1 discusses/talks about x2

so the x1 place must be occupied by a mass (for reasons not explained here); however, different components of the mass may discuss in different languages. To associate each participant with his or her language, we can say:

Example 14.131. 

mi ce'e bau la .lojban. pe'e joi
(I [plus] in-language that-named Lojban [joint] massed-with
do ce'e bau la .gliban. nu'u casnu
you [plus] in-language that-named English ) discuss.

Like all non-logical connectives, the usage shown in Example 14.131 cannot be mechanically converted into a non-logical connective placed at another location in the bridi. The forethought equivalent of Example 14.131 is:

Example 14.132. 

nu'i joigi mi bau la .lojban. gi do bau la .gliban. nu'u casnu


Non-logical forethought termsets are also useful when the things to be non-logically connected are sumti preceded with tense or modal (BAI) tags:

Example 14.133. 

la .djan. fa'u la .frank. cusku
That-named John respectively-with that-named Frank express
nu'i bau la .lojban.
[start-termset] in-language that-named Lojban
nu'u fa'u bai
[joint] respectively-with under-compulsion-by
tu'a la .djordj. [nu'u]
something-about that-named George.

John and Frank speak in Lojban and under George's compulsion, respectively.


Example 14.133 associates speaking in Lojban with John, and speaking under George's compulsion with Frank. We do not know what language Frank uses, or whether John speaks under anyone's compulsion.

Joiks may be prefixed with .i to produce ijoiks, which serve to non-logically connect sentences. The ijoik .i ce'o indicates that the event of the second bridi follows that of the first bridi in some way other than a time relationship (which is handled with a tense):

Example 14.134. 

mi ba gasnu la'e di'e .i
I [future] do the-referent-of the-following:
tu'e kanji lo ni cteki .ice'o lumci le karce
( Compute the quantity-of taxes. And-then wash the car.
.ice'o dzukansa le gerku tu'u
And-then walkingly-accompany the dog. )

List of things to do: Figure taxes. Wash car. Walk dog.


Example 14.134 represents a list of things to be done in priority order. The order is important, hence the need for a sequence connective, but does not necessarily represent a time order (the dog may end up getting walked first). Note the use of tu'e and tu'u as general brackets around the whole list. This is related to, but distinct from, their use in Section 14.8 , because there is no logical connective between the introductory phrase mi ba gasnu la'edi'e and the rest. The brackets effectively show how large an utterance the word di'e , which means the following utterance , refers to.

Similarly, .i joi is used to connect sentences that represent the components of a joint event such as a joint cause: the Lojban equivalent of Fran hit her head and fell out of the boat, so that she drowned would join the events Fran hit her head and Fran fell out of the boat with .i joi.

The following nai , if present, does not negate either of the things to be connected, but instead specifies that some other connection (logical or non-logical) is applicable: it is a scalar negation:

Example 14.135. 

mi jo'u nai do cu remei
I in-common-with [not!] you are-a-twosome

The result of mi jo'u do would be two individuals, not a mass, therefore jo'u is not applicable; joi would be the correct connective.

There is no joik question cmavo as such; however, joiks and ijoiks may be uttered in isolation in response to a logical connective question, as in the following exchange:

Example 14.136. 

do djica tu'a loi ckafi
You desire something-about a-mass-of coffee
ji loi tcati
[what-connective?] a-mass-of tea?

Do you want coffee or tea?


Example 14.137. 

joi
Mixed-mass-and.

Both as a mass (i.e, mixed together).


Ugh. (Or in Lojban: .a'u nai sai ro'o.)

14.16. Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection

In addition to the non-logical connectives of selma'o JOI explained in Section 14.14 and Section 14.15 , there are three other connectives which can appear in joiks: bi'i , bi'o , and mi'i , all of selma'o BIhI. The first two cmavo are used to specify intervals: abstract objects defined by two endpoints. The cmavo bi'i is correct if the endpoints are independent of order, whereas bi'o or se bi'o are used when order matters.

An example of bi'i in sumti connection:

Example 14.138. 

mi ca sanli
I [present] stand-on-surface
la .drezdn. bi'i la .frankfurt.
that-named Dresden [interval] that-named Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.


In Example 14.138 , it is all the same whether I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt or between Frankfurt and Dresden, so bi'i is the appropriate interval connective. The sumti la .drezdn. bi'i la .frankfurt. falls into the x2 place of sanli , which is the surface I stand on; the interval specifies that surface by its limits. (Obviously, I am not standing on the whole of the interval; the x2 place of sanli specifies a surface which is typically larger in extent than just the size of the stander's feet.)

Example 14.139. 

mi cadzu ca la .pacac.
I walk simultaneous-with First-hour
bi'o la .recac.
[ordered-interval] Second-hour.

I walk from one o'clock to two o'clock.


In Example 14.139 , on the other hand, it is essential that la .pacac. comes before la .recac. ; otherwise we have an 11-hour (or 23-hour) interval rather than a one-hour interval. In this use of an interval, the whole interval is probably intended, or at least most of it.

Example 14.139 is equivalent to:

Example 14.140. 

mi cadzu ca la .recac.
I walk simultaneous-with Second-hour
se bi'o la .pacac.
[reverse] [ordered] First-hour.

English cannot readily express se bi'o , but its meaning can be understood by reversing the two sumti.

The third cmavo of selma'o BIhI, namely mi'i , expresses an interval seen from a different viewpoint: not a pair of endpoints, but a center point and a distance. For example:

Example 14.141. 

le jbama pu daspo la .uacintyn.
The bomb [past] destroys Washington
mi'i lo minli be li muno
[center] what-is measured-in-miles by 50.

The bomb destroyed Washington and fifty miles around.


Here we have an interval whose center is Washington and whose distance, or radius, is fifty miles.

In Example 14.138 , is it possible that I am standing in Dresden (or Frankfurt) itself? Yes. The connectives of selma'o BIhI are ambiguous about whether the endpoints themselves are included in or excluded from the interval. Two auxiliary cmavo ga'o and ke'i (of cmavo GAhO) are used to indicate the status of the endpoints: ga'o means that the endpoint is included, ke'i that it is excluded:

Example 14.142. 

mi ca sanli la .drezdn. ga'o
I [present] stand that-named Dresden [inclusive]
bi'i ga'o la .frankfurt.
[interval] [inclusive] that-named Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.


Example 14.143. 

mi ca sanli la .drezdn. ga'o
I [present] stand that-named Dresden [inclusive]
bi'i ke'i la .frankfurt.
[interval] [exclusive] that-named Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden (inclusive) and Frankfurt (exclusive).


Example 14.144. 

mi ca sanli la .drezdn. ke'i
I [present] stand that-named Dresden [exclusive]
bi'i ga'o la .frankfurt.
[interval] [inclusive] that-named Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).


Example 14.145. 

mi ca sanli la .drezdn. ke'i
I [present] stand that-named Dresden [exclusive]
bi'i ke'i la .frankfurt.
[interval] [exclusive] that-named Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, exclusive of both.


As these examples should make clear, the GAhO cmavo that applies to a given endpoint is the one that stands physically adjacent to it: the left-hand endpoint is referred to by the first GAhO, and the right-hand endpoint by the second GAhO. It is ungrammatical to have just one GAhO.

(Etymologically, ga'o is derived from ganlo , which means closed , and ke'i from kalri , which means open. In mathematics, inclusive intervals are referred to as closed intervals, and exclusive intervals as open ones.)

BIhI joiks are grammatical anywhere that other joiks are, including in tanru connection and (as ijoiks) between sentences. No meanings have been found for these uses.

Negated intervals, marked with a -nai following the BIhI cmavo, indicate an interval that includes everything but what is between the endpoints (with respect to some understood scale):

Example 14.146. 

do dicra .e'a mi ca la .daucac.
You disturb (allowed) me at that-named 10
bi'onai la .gaicac.
not-from-...-to that-named 12

You can contact me except from 10 to 12.


The complete syntax of joiks is:

  • [se] JOI [nai]

  • [se] BIhI [nai]

  • GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO

Notice that the colloquial English translations of bi'i and bi'o have forethought form: between ... and for bi'i , and from ... to for bi'o. In Lojban too, non-logical connectives can be expressed in forethought. Rather than using a separate selma'o, the forethought logical connectives are constructed from the afterthought ones by suffixing gi. Such a compound cmavo is not unnaturally called a joigik ; the syntax of joigiks is any of:

  • [se] JOI [nai] GI

  • [se] BIhI [nai] GI

  • GAhO [se] BIhI [nai] GAhO GI

Joigiks may be used to non-logically connect bridi, sumti, and bridi-tails; and also in termsets.

Example 14.111 in forethought becomes:

Example 14.147. 

joigi la .djan. gi la .alis. bevri le pipno
[Together] that-named John and that-named Alice carry the piano.

The first gi is part of the joigik; the second gi is the regular gik that separates the two things being connected in all forethought forms.

Example 14.143 can be expressed in forethought as:

Example 14.148. 

mi ca sanli ke'i bi'i
I [present] stand [exclusive] between
ga'o gi la .drezdn. gi la .frankfurt.
[inclusive] and that-named Dresden and that-named Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden (exclusive) and Frankfurt (inclusive).


In forethought, unfortunately, the GAhOs become physically separated from the endpoints, but the same rule applies: the first GAhO refers to the first endpoint.

14.17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

Lojban has a separate grammar embedded within the main grammar for representing mathematical expressions (or mekso in Lojban) such as 2 + 2. Mathematical expressions are explained fully in Chapter 18. The basic components of mekso are operands, like 2 , and operators, like +. Both of these may be either logically or non-logically connected.

Operands are connected in afterthought with eks and in forethought with geks, just like sumti. Operators, on the other hand, are connected in afterthought with jeks and in forethought with guheks, just like tanru components. (However, jeks and joiks with bo are not allowed for operators.) This parallelism is no accident.

In addition, eks with bo and with keke'e are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and keke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there is no analogue of tanru among the operators.

Only a few examples of each kind of mekso connection will be given. Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in either the mekso or the logical-connective scheme of things. These examples are drawn from Section 18.17 , and contain many mekso features not explained in this chapter.

Example 14.149 exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:

Example 14.149. 

vei ci .a vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci
( Three or four ) people go-to the market.

Example 14.150 is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:

Example 14.150. 

vei ga ci gi vo [ve'o] prenu cu klama le zarci
( Either 3 or 4 ) people go-to the market.

Note that the mekso in Example 14.149 and Example 14.150 are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in vei and ve'o parentheses when used as a quantifier. The right parenthesis mark, ve'o , is an elidable terminator.

Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:

Example 14.151. 

li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo
The-number 2 plus and times 2 equals the-number 4.

2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.


The forethought form of Example 14.151 is:

Example 14.152. 

li re gu'e su'i gi pi'i re du li vo
The-number two both plus and times two equals the-number four.

Both 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 x 2 = 4.


Non-logical connection with joiks or joigiks is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with bi'i to create mathematical intervals:

Example 14.153. 

li no ga'o bi'i ke'i pa
the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one
[0,1)

the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one


You can also combine two operands with ce'o , the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:

Example 14.154. 

xy. boi xi vei .abu ce'o .ebu [ve'o]
x sub ( a sequence e )
x a,e

Note that the boi in Example 14.154 is not elidable, because the xi subscript needs something to attach to.

14.18. Tenses, modals, and logical connection

The tense and modal systems of Lojban interact with the logical connective system. No one chapter can explain all of these simultaneously, so each chapter must present its own view of the area of interaction with emphasis on its own concepts and terminology. In the examples of this chapter, the many tenses of various selma'o as well as the modals of selma'o BAI are represented by the simple time cmavo pu , ca , and ba (of selma'o PU) representing the past, the present, and the future respectively. Preceding a selbri, these cmavo state the time when the bridi was, is, or will be true (analogous to English verb tenses); preceding a sumti, they state that the event of the main bridi is before, simultaneous with, or after the event given by the sumti (which is generally a le nu abstraction; see Section 11.2).

The two types of interaction between tenses and logical connectives are logically connected tenses and tensed logical connections. The former are fairly simple. Jeks may be used between tense cmavo to specify two connected bridi that differ only in tense:

Example 14.155. 

la .artr. pu nolraitru
That-named Arthur [past] is-a-noblest-governor.
.ije la .artr. ba nolraitru
And that-named Arthur [future] is-a-noblest-governor.

Arthur was a king, and Arthur will be a king.


can be reduced to:

Example 14.156. 

la .artr. pu je ba nolraitru
That-named Arthur [past] and [future] is-a-noblest-governor.

Arthur was and will be king.


Example 14.155 and Example 14.156 are equivalent in meaning; neither says anything about whether Arthur is king now.

Non-logical connection with joiks is also possible between tenses:

Example 14.157. 

mi pu bi'o ba vasxu
I [past] from-...-to [future] breathe.

I breathe from a past time until a future time.


The full tense system makes more interesting tense intervals expressible, such as from a medium time ago until a long time from now.

No forethought connections between tenses are permitted by the grammar, nor is there any way to override the default left-grouping rule; these limitations are imposed to keep the tense grammar simpler. Whatever can be said with tenses or modals can be said with subordinate bridi stating the time, place, or mode explicitly, so it is reasonable to try to remove at least some complications.

Tensed logical connections are both more complex and more important than logical connections between tenses. Consider the English sentence:

Example 14.158. 

I went to the market, and I bought food.


The verbatim translation of Example 14.158 , namely:

Example 14.159. 

mi pu klama le zarci .ije mi pu tervecnu lo cidja
I [past] go-to the market. And I [past] buy items-of food.

fails to fully represent a feature of the English, namely that the buying came after the going. (It also fails to represent that the buying was a consequence of the going, which can be expressed by a modal that is discussed in Chapter 9.) However, the tense information – that the event of my going to the market preceded the event of my buying food – can be added to the logical connective as follows. The .i je is replaced by .i je bo , and the tense cmavo ba is inserted between .i je and bo :

Example 14.160. 

mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go-to the market.
.ije babo mi pu tervecnu lo cidja
And [later] I [past] buy items-of food.

Here the pu cmavo in the two bridi-tails express the time of both actions with respect to the speaker: in the past. The ba relates the two items to one another: the second item is later than the first item. The grammar does not permit omitting the bo ; if it were omitted, the ba and the second pu would run together to form a compound tense bapu applying to the second bridi-tail only.

Adding tense or modal information to a logical connective is permitted only in the following situations:

Between an ek (or joik) and bo , as in:

Example 14.161. 

la .djan .e cabo la .alis. klama le zarci
That-named John and [simultaneous] that-named Alice go-to the market.

John and Alice go to the market simultaneously.


Between an ek (or joik) and ke , as in:

Example 14.162. 

mi dzukla le zarci .e pu
I walk-to the market and [earlier]
ke le zdani .a le ckule [ke'e]
( the house or the school ).

I walk to the market and, before that, to the house or the school.


Between a gihek and bo , as in:

Example 14.163. 

mi dunda le cukta gi'e babo
I give the book and [later]
lebna lo jdini vau do
take some money from/to-you.

I give you the book and then take some dollars (pounds, yen) from you.


Between a gihek and ke , as in:

Example 14.164. 

mi dzukla le zarci gi'e ca
I walk-to the market and [simultaneous]
ke cusku zo'e la .djan. [ke'e]
( express something to-that-named John. )

I walk to the market and at the same time talk to John.


Between an ijek (or ijoik) and bo , as in:

Example 14.165. 

mi viska pa nanmu .ije babo mi viska pa ninmu
I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.

I see a man, and then I see a woman.


Between an ijek (or ijoik) and tu'e , as in:

Example 14.166. 

mi viska pa nanmu .ije batu'e mi viska pa ninmu [tu'u]
I see a man. And [later] I see a woman.

I see a man, and then I see a woman.


And finally, between a jek (or joik) and bo , as in:

Example 14.167. 

mi mikce jebabo ricfu
I am-a-doctor and-[later] rich

I am a doctor and future rich person.


As can be seen from Example 14.165 and Example 14.166 , the choice between bo and ke (or tu'e) is arbitrary when there are only two things to be connected. If there were no tense information to include, of course neither would be required; it is only the rule that tense information must always be sandwiched between the logical connective and a following bo , ke , or tu'e that requires the use of one of these grouping cmavo in Example 14.161 and Example 14.163 through Example 14.167.

Non-logical connectives with bo and ke can include tense information in exactly the same way as logical connectives. Forethought connectives, however (except as noted below) are unable to do so, as are termsets or tense connectives. Mathematical operands and operators can also include tense information in their logical connectives as a result of their close parallelism with sumti and tanru components respectively:

Example 14.168. 

vei ci .ebabo vo [ve'o] tadni cu zvati le kumfa
( 3 and-[future] 4 ) students are-at the room.

Three and, later, four students were in the room.


is a simple example. There is a special grammatical rule for use when a tense applies to both of the selbri in a forethought bridi-tail connection: the entire forethought construction can just be preceded by a tense. For example:

Example 14.169. 

mi pu ge klama le zarci gi tervecnu lo cidja
I [past] both go-to the market and buy some food

I went to the market and bought some food.


Example 14.169 is similar to Example 14.159. There is no time relationship specified between the going and the buying; both are simply set in the past.

14.19. Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions

Last and (as a matter of fact) least: a logical connective is allowed between abstraction markers of selma'o NU. Jeks are the appropriate connective.

Example 14.170. 

le mikce cu se cinri le pu'u jenai za'i mi sipna
The doctor is-interested-in the process-of and-not state-of me sleeping.

The doctor is interested in the process of me sleeping but not in the state of me sleeping.


As with tenses and modals, there is no forethought and no way to override the left-grouping rule.

Logical connectives and abstraction are related in another way as well, though. Since an abstraction contains a bridi, the bridi may have a logical connection inside it. Is it legitimate to split the outer bridi into two, joined by the logical connection? Absolutely not. For example:

Example 14.171. 

mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive
I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things
cu zvati gi'onai na zvati vau la .iupiter.
(is-at or-else is-not at) that-named Jupiter.

I believe there either is or isn't life on Jupiter.


is true, since the embedded sentence is a tautology, but:

Example 14.172. 

mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive cu zvati la .iupiter.
I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things is-at that-named Jupiter
.ijonai mi jinvi le du'u loi jmive
or-else I opine the fact-that a-mass-of living-things
na zvati la .iupiter.
isn't-at that-named Jupiter

is false, since I have no evidence one way or the other ( jinvi requires some sort of evidence, real or fancied, unlike krici).

14.20. Constructs and appropriate connectives

The following table specifies, for each kind of construct that can be logically or non-logically connected in Lojban, what kind of connective is required for both afterthought and (when possible) forethought modes. An asterisk (*) indicates that tensed connection is permitted.

A dash indicates that connection of the specified type is not possible.

construct afterthought logical forethought logical afterthought non-logical forethought non-logical
bridi ijek* gek ijoik* joigik
sumti ek* gek joik* joigik
bridi-tails gihek* gek - joigik
termsets ek* gek joik* joigik
tanru parts jek guhek joik* -
operands ek* gek joik* joigik
operators jek guhek joik -
tenses/modals jek - joik -
abstractors jek - joik -

14.21. Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives

The following table specifies, for each truth function, the most-often used cmavo or compound cmavo which expresses it for each of the six types of logical connective. (Other compound cmavo are often possible: for example, se .a means the same as .a , and could be used instead.)

Note: ijeks are exactly the same as the corresponding jeks, except for the prefixed .i.

14.22. Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives

The full set of rules for inserting na , se , and nai into any connective is:

Afterthought logical connectives (eks, jeks, giheks, ijeks):

  • Negate first construct: Place na before the connective cmavo (but after the .i of an ijek).

  • Negate second construct: Place nai after the connective cmavo.

  • Exchange constructs: Place se before the connective cmavo (after na if any).

Forethought logical connectives (geks, guheks):

  • Negate first construct: Place nai after the connective cmavo.

  • Negate second construct: Place nai after the gi.

  • Exchange constructs: Place se before the connective cmavo.

Non-logical connectives (joiks, joigiks):

  • Negate connection: Place nai after the connective cmavo (but before the gi of a joigik).

  • Exchange constructs: Place se before the connective cmavo.

14.23. Locations of other tables

Section 14.1 : a table explaining the meaning of each truth function in English.

Section 14.2 : a table relating the truth functions to the four basic vowels.

Section 14.13 : a table of the connective question cmavo.

Section 14.14 : a table of the meanings of JOI cmavo when used to connect sumti.

Chapter 15. No problems: on Lojban negation

The picture for chapter 15

15.1. Introductory

The grammatical expression of negation is a critical part of Lojban's claim to being logical. The problem of negation, simply put, is to come up with a complete definition of the word not. For Lojban's unambiguous grammar, this means further that meanings of not with different grammatical effect must be different words, and even different grammatical structures.

Logical assertions are implicitly required in a logical language; thus, an apparatus for expressing them is built into Lojban's logical connectives and other structures.

In natural languages, especially those of Indo-European grammar, we have sentences composed of two parts which are typically called subject and predicate. In the statement

Example 15.1. 

John goes to the store


John is the subject, and goes to the store is the predicate. Negating Example 15.1 to produce

Example 15.2. 

John doesn't go to the store.


has the effect of declaring that the predicate does not hold for the subject. Example 15.2 says nothing about whether John goes somewhere else, or whether someone else besides John goes to the store.

We will call this kind of negation natural language negation. This kind of negation is difficult to manipulate by the tools of logic, because it doesn't always follow the rules of logic. Logical negation is bi-polar: either a statement is true, or it is false. If a statement is false, then its negation must be true. Such negation is termed contradictory negation.

Let's look at some examples of how natural language negation can violate the rules of contradictory negation.

Example 15.3. 

Some animals are not white.


Example 15.4. 

Some animals are white.


Both of these statements are true; yet one is apparently the negation of the other. Another example:

Example 15.5. 

I mustn't go to the dance.


Example 15.6. 

I must go to the dance.


At first thought, Example 15.5 negates Example 15.6. Thinking further, we realize that there is an intermediate state wherein I am permitted to go to the dance, but not obligated to do so. Thus, it is possible that both statements are false.

Sometimes order is significant:

Example 15.7. 

The falling rock didn't kill Sam.


Example 15.8. 

Sam wasn't killed by the falling rock.


Our minds play tricks on us with this one. Because Example 15.7 is written in what is called the active voice , we immediately get confused about whether the falling rock is a suitable subject for the predicate did kill Sam. Kill implies volition to us, and rocks do not have volition. This confusion is employed by opponents of gun control who use the argument Guns don't kill people; people kill people.

Somehow, we don't have the same problem with Example 15.8. The subject is Sam, and we determine the truth or falsity of the statement by whether he was or wasn't killed by the falling rock.

Example 15.8 also helps us focus on the fact that there are at least two questionable facts implicit in this sentence: whether Sam was killed, and if so, whether the falling rock killed him. If Sam wasn't killed, the question of what killed him is moot.

This type of problem becomes more evident when the subject of the sentence turns out not to exist:

Example 15.9. 

The King of Mexico didn't come to dinner.


Example 15.10. 

The King of Mexico did come to dinner.


In the natural languages, we would be inclined to say that both of these statements are false, since there is no King of Mexico.

The rest of this chapter is designed to explain the Lojban model of negation.

15.2. bridi negation

In discussing Lojban negation, we will call the form of logical negation that simply denies the truth of a statement bridi negation. Using bridi negation, we can say the equivalent of I haven't stopped beating my wife without implying that I ever started, nor even that I have a wife, meaning simply It isn't true that I have stopped beating my wife. Since Lojban uses bridi as smaller components of complex sentences, bridi negation is permitted in these components as well at the sentence level.

For the bridi negation of a sentence to be true, the sentence being negated must be false. A major use of bridi negation is in making a negative response to a yes/no question; such responses are usually contradictory, denying the truth of the entire sentence. A negative answer to

Example 15.11. 

Did you go to the store?


is taken as a negation of the entire sentence, equivalent to

Example 15.12. 

No, I didn't go to the store.


The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.

The simplest way to express a bridi negation is to use the cmavo na of selma'o NA before the selbri of the affirmative form of the bridi (but after the cu , if there is one):

Example 15.13. 

mi klama le zarci
I go-to the store.

when negated becomes:

Example 15.14. 

mi na klama le zarci
I [false] go-to the store.

Note that we have used a special convention to show in the English that a bridi negation is present. We would like to use the word not , because this highlights the naturalness of putting the negation marker just before the selbri, and makes the form easier to learn. But there is a major difference between Lojban's bridi negation with na and natural language negation with not. In English, the word not can apply to a single word, to a phrase, to an English predicate, or to the entire sentence. In addition, not may indicate either contradictory negation or another form of negation, depending on the sentence. Lojban's internal bridi negation, on the other hand, always applies to an entire bridi, and is always a contradictory negation; that is, it contradicts the claim of the whole bridi.

Because of the ambiguity of English not , we will use [false] in the translation of Lojban examples to remind the reader that we are expressing a contradictory negation. Here are more examples of bridi negation:

Example 15.15. 

mi [cu] na ca klama le zarci
I [false] now am-a-go-er-to the market.

I am not going to the market now.


Example 15.16. 

lo ca nolraitru be
The-actual present noblest-governor of
le fasygu'e cu na krecau
the French-country [false] is-hair-without.

The current king of France isn't bald.


Example 15.17. 

ti na barda prenu co melbi mi
This [false] is-a-big person of-type (beautiful-to me).

This isn't a big person who is beautiful to me.


Although there is this fundamental difference between Lojban's internal bridi negation and English negation, we note that in many cases, especially when there are no existential or quantified variables (the cmavo da , de , and di of selma'o KOhA, explained in Chapter 16) in the bridi, you can indeed translate Lojban na as not (or isn't or doesn't , as appropriate).

The most important rule about bridi negation is that if a bridi is true, its negation is false, and vice versa.

In Lojban, there are several structures that implicitly contain bridi, so that Lojban sentences may contain more than one occurrence of na. For example:

Example 15.18. 

mi na gleki le nu
I [false] am-happy-about the event-of
na klama le nu dansu
([false] going-to the event-of dancing).

It is not the case that I am happy about it not being the case that I am going to the dance.

I am not happy about not going to the dance.


In the previous example, we used internal negations in abstraction bridi; bridi negation may also be found in descriptions within sumti. For example:

Example 15.19. 

mi nelci le na melbi
I am-fond-of the-one-described-as ([false] beautiful).

I am fond of the one who isn't beautiful.


A more extreme (and more indefinite) example is:

Example 15.20. 

mi nelci lo na
I am-fond-of one-who-is ([false]
ca nolraitru be le fasygu'e
the-current king of the French-country).

I am fond of one who isn't the current king of France.


The claim of Example 15.20 could apply to anyone except a person who is fond of no one at all, since the relation within the description is false for everyone. You cannot readily express these situations in colloquial English.

Negation with na applies to an entire bridi, and not to just part of a selbri. Therefore, you won't likely have reason to put na inside a tanru. In fact, the grammar currently does not allow you to do so (except in a lujvo and in elaborate constructs involving GUhA, the forethought connector for selbri). Any situation where you might want to do so can be expressed in a less-compressed non-tanru form. This grammatical restriction helps ensure that bridi negation is kept separate from other forms of negation.

The grammar of na allows multiple adjacent negations, which cancel out, as in normal logic:

Example 15.21. 

ti na na barda prenu co melbi mi
This [false] [false] is-a-big person that is-(beautiful-to me).

which is the same as:

Example 15.22. 

ti barda prenu co melbi mi
This is-a-big person that is-(beautiful-to me).

When a selbri is tagged with a tense or a modal, negation with na is permitted in two positions: before or after the tag. No semantic difference between these forms has yet been defined, but this is not finally determined, since the interactions between tenses/modals and bridi negation have not been fully explored. In particular, it remains to be seen whether sentences using less familiar tenses, such as:

Example 15.23. 

mi [cu] ta'e klama le zarci
I habitually go-to the market.

mean the same thing with na before the ta'e , as when the negation occurs afterwards; we'll let future, Lojban-speaking, logicians decide on how they relate to each other.

A final caution on translating English negations into Lojban: if you translate the English literally, you'll get the wrong one. With English causal statements, and other statements with auxiliary clauses, this problem is more likely.

Thus, if you translate the English:

Example 15.24. 

I do not go to the market because the car is broken.


as:

Example 15.25. 

mi na klama le zarci ki'u
I [false] go-to the market because-of
lenu le karce cu spofu
the-event-of the car is-broken.

It is false that: I go to the market because the car is broken.


you end up negating too much.

Such mistranslations result from the ambiguity of English compounded by the messiness of natural language negation. A correct translation of the normal interpretation of Example 15.24 is:

Example 15.26. 

le nu mi na klama le zarci cu se krinu
The event-of (my [false] going-to the market) is-justified-by
le nu le karce cu spofu
the event-of (the car being-broken).

My not going to the market is because the car is broken.


In Example 15.26 , the negation is clearly confined to the event abstraction in the x1 sumti, and does not extend to the whole sentence. The English could also have been expressed by two separate sentences joined by a causal connective (which we'll not go into here).

The problem is not confined to obvious causals. In the English:

Example 15.27. 

I was not conscripted into the Army with the help of my uncle the Senator.


we do not intend the uncle's help to be part of the negation. We must thus move the negation into an event clause or use two separate sentences. The event-clause version would look like:

Example 15.28. 

The event-of (my [false] being-conscripted-into the Army) was aided by my uncle the Senator.


It is possible that someone will want to incorporate bridi negations into lujvo. For this reason, the rafsi -nar- has been reserved for na. However, before using this rafsi, make sure that you intend the contradictory bridi negation, and not the scalar negation described in Section 15.3 , which will be much more common in tanru and lujvo.

15.3. Scalar negation

Let us now consider some other types of negation. For example, when we say:

Example 15.29. 

The chair is not brown.


we make a positive inference – that the chair is some other color. Thus, it is legitimate to respond:

Example 15.30. 

It is green.


Whether we agree that the chair is brown or not, the fact that the statement refers to color has significant effect on how we interpret some responses. If we hear the following exchange:

Example 15.31. 

The chair is not brown.

Correct. The chair is wooden.


we immediately start to wonder about the unusual wood that isn't brown. If we hear the exchange:

Example 15.32. 

Is the chair green?

No, it is in the kitchen.


we are unsettled because the response seems to be a non-sequitur. But since it might be true and it is a statement about the chair, one can't say it is entirely irrelevant!

What is going on in these statements is something called scalar negation. As the name suggests, scalar negation presumes an implied scale. A negation of this type not only states that one scalar value is false, but implies that another value on the scale must be true. This can easily lead to complications. The following exchange seems reasonably natural (a little suspension of disbelief in such inane conversation will help):

Example 15.33. 

That isn't a blue house.

Right! That is a green house.


We have acknowledged a scalar negation by providing a correct value which is another color in the set of colors permissible for houses. While a little less likely, the following exchange is also natural:

Example 15.34. 

That isn't a blue house.

Right! That is a blue car.


Again, we have acknowledged a scalar negation, and substituted a different object in the universe of discourse of things that can be blue.

Now, if the following exchange occurs:

Example 15.35. 

That isn't a blue house.

Right! That is a green car.


we find the result unsettling. This is because it seems that two corrections have been applied when there is only one negation. Yet out of context, blue house and green car seem to be reasonably equivalent units that should be mutually replaceable in a sentence. It's just that we don't have a clear way in English to say:

Example 15.36. 

That isn't a blue-house.


aloud so as to clearly imply that the scalar negation is affecting the pair of words as a single unit.

Another even more confusing example of scalar negation is to the sentence:

Example 15.37. 

John didn't go to Paris from Rome.


Might Example 15.37 imply that John went to Paris from somewhere else? Or did he go somewhere else from Rome? Or perhaps he didn't go anywhere at all: maybe someone else did, or maybe there was no event of going whatsoever. One can devise circumstances where any one, two or all three of these statements might be inferred by a listener.

In English, we have a clear way of distinguishing scalar negation from predicate negation that can be used in many situations. We can use the partial word non- as a prefix. But this is not always considered good usage, even though it would render many statements much clearer. For example, we can clearly distinguish

Example 15.38. 

That is a non-blue house.


from the related sentence

Example 15.39. 

That is a blue non-house.


Example 15.38 and Example 15.39 have the advantage that, while they contain a negative indication, they are in fact positive assertions. They say what is true by excluding the false; they do not say what is false.

We can't always use non- though, because of the peculiarities of English's grammar. It would sound strange to say:

Example 15.40. 

John went to non-Paris from Rome.


or

Example 15.41. 

John went to Paris from non-Rome.


although these would clarify the vague negation. Another circumlocution for English scalar negation is other than , which works where non- does not, but is wordier.

Finally, we have natural language negations that are called polar negations, or opposites:

Example 15.42. 

John is moral


Example 15.43. 

John is immoral


To be immoral is much more than to just be not moral: it implies the opposite condition. Statements like Example 15.43 are strong negations which not only deny the truth of a statement, but assert its opposite. Since, opposite implies a scale, polar negations are a special variety of scalar negations.

To examine this concept more closely, let us draw a linear scale, showing two examples of how the scale is used:


      Affirmations (positive)      Negations (negative)
      |-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
      All       Most        Some         Few       None
      Excellent Good        Fair         Poor     Awful
    

Some scales are more binary than the examples we diagrammed. Thus we have not necessary or unnecessary being the polar opposite of necessary. Another scale, especially relevant to Lojban, is interpreted based on situations modified by one's philosophy: not true may be equated with false in a bi-valued truth-functional logic, while in tri-valued logic an intermediate between true and false is permitted, and in fuzzy logic a continuous scale exists from true to false. The meaning of not true requires a knowledge of which variety of truth scale is being considered.

We will define the most general form of scalar negation as indicating only that the particular point or value in the scale or range is not valid and that some other (unspecified) point on the scale is correct. This is the intent expressed in most contexts by not mild , for example.

Using this paradigm, contradictory negation is less restrictive than scalar negation – it says that the point or value stated is incorrect (false), and makes no statement about the truth of any other point or value, whether or not on the scale.

In English, scalar negation semantically includes phrases such as other than , reverse of , or opposite from expressions and their equivalents. More commonly, scalar negation is expressed in English by the prefixes non- , un- , il- , and im-. Just which form and permissible values are implied by a scalar negation is dependent on the semantics of the word or concept which is being negated, and on the context. Much confusion in English results from the uncontrolled variations in meaning of these phrases and prefixes.

In the examples of Section 15.4 , we will translate the general case of scalar negation using the general formula other than when a phrase is scalar-negated, and non- when a single word is scalar-negated.

15.4. selbri and tanru negation

All the scalar negations illustrated in Section 15.3 are expressed in Lojban using the cmavo na'e (of selma'o NAhE). The most common use of na'e is as a prefix to the selbri:

Example 15.44. 

mi klama le zarci
I go-to the market.

Example 15.45. 

mi na'e klama le zarci
I (other-than go-to) the market.

Comparing these two, we see that the negation operator being used in Example 15.45 is na'e. But what exactly does na'e negate? Does the negation include only the gismu klama , which is the entire selbri in this case, or does it include the le zarci as well? In Lojban, the answer is unambiguously only the gismu. The cmavo na'e always applies only to what follows it.

Example 15.45 looks as if it were parallel to:

Example 15.46. 

mi na klama le zarci
I [false] go-to the market.

but in fact there is no real parallelism at all. A negation using na denies the truth of a relationship, but a selbri negation with na'e asserts that a relationship exists other than that stated, one which specifically involves the sumti identified in the statement. The grammar allotted to na'e allows us to unambiguously express scalar negations in terms of scope, scale, and range within the scale. Before we explain the scalar aspects, let us show how the scope of na'e is determined.

In tanru, we may wish to negate an individual element before combining it with another to form the tanru. We in effect need a shorter-than-selbri-scope negation, for which we can use na'e as well. The positive sentence

Example 15.47. 

mi cadzu klama le zarci
I walking-ly go-to the market.

can be subjected to selbri negation in several ways. Two are:

Example 15.48. 

mi na'e cadzu klama le zarci
I (other-than walkingly) go-to the market.

Example 15.49. 

mi cadzu na'e klama le zarci
I walkingly (other-than go-to) the market.

These negations show the default scope of na'e is close-binding on an individual brivla in a tanru. Example 15.48 says that I am going to the market, but in some kind of a non-walking manner. (As with most tanru, there are a few other possible interpretations, but we'll assume this one – see Chapter 5 for a discussion of tanru meaning).

In neither Example 15.48 nor Example 15.49 does the na'e negate the entire selbri. While both sentences contain negations that deny a particular relationship between the sumti, they also have a component which makes a positive claim about such a relationship. This is clearer in Example 15.48 , which says that I am going, but in a non-walking manner. In Example 15.49 , we have claimed that the relationship between me and the market in some way involves walking, but is not one of going to (perhaps we are walking around the market, or walking-in-place while at the market).

The scale , or actually the set , implied in Lojban tanru negations is anything which plausibly can be substituted into the tanru. (Plausibility here is interpreted in the same way that answers to a mo question must be plausible – the result must not only have the right number of places and have sumti values appropriate to the place structure, it must also be appropriate or relevant to the context.) This minimal condition allows a speaker to be intentionally vague, while still communicating meaningful information. The speaker who uses selbri negation is denying one relationship, while minimally asserting a different relationship.

We also need a scalar negation form that has a scope longer than a single brivla. There exists such a longer-scope selbri negation form, as exemplified by (each Lojban sentence in the next several examples is given twice, with parentheses in the second copy showing the scope of the na'e):

Example 15.50. 

mi na'e ke cadzu klama [ke'e] le zarci
mi na'e (ke cadzu klama [ke'e]) le zarci
I other-than ( walkingly go-to ) the market.

This negation uses the same ke and ke'e delimiters (the ke'e is always elidable at the end of a selbri) that are used in tanru. The sentence clearly negates the entire selbri. The ke'e , whether elided or not, reminds us that the negation does not include the trailing sumti. While the trailing-sumti place-structure is defined as that of the final brivla, the trailing sumti themselves are not part of the selbri and are thus not negated by na'e.

Negations of just part of the selbri are also permitted:

Example 15.51. 

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu ke'e klama le zarci
mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu ke'e) klama le zarci
I other-than ( quickly walkingly ) go-to the market.

In Example 15.51 , only the sutra cadzu tanru is negated, so the speaker is indeed going to the market, but not by walking quickly.

Negations made with na'e or na'eke also include within their scope any sumti attached to the brivla or tanru with be or bei. Such attached sumti are considered part of the brivla or tanru:

Example 15.52. 

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be le mi birka
I other-than ( quickly walking on the of-me arms-ly
ke'e klama le zarci
) go-to the market.

Note that Example 15.53 and Example 15.54 do not express the same thing:

Example 15.53. 

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu [ke'e] lemi birka
mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu [ke'e]) lemi birka
I other-than ( quickly walk-on ) my arms.

Example 15.54. 

mi na'e ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e]
mi na'e (ke sutra cadzu be lemi birka [ke'e])
I other-than ( quickly walk on my arms ).

The translations show that the negation in Example 15.53 is more restricted in scope; i.e. less of the sentence is negated with respect to x1 ( mi).

Logical scope being an important factor in Lojban's claims to be unambiguous, let us indicate the relative precedence of na'e as an operator. Grouping with ke and ke'e , of course, has an overt scope, which is its advantage. na'e is very close binding to its brivla. Internal binding of tanru, with bo , is not as tightly bound as na'e. co , the tanru inversion operator has a scope that is longer than all other tanru constructs.

In short, na'e and na'eke define a type of negation, which is shorter in scope than bridi negation, and which affects all or part of a selbri. The result of na'e negation remains an assertion of some specific truth and not merely a denial of another claim.

The similarity becomes striking when it is noticed that the rafsi -nal- , representing na'e when a tanru is condensed into a lujvo, forms an exact parallel to the English usage of non-. Turning a series of related negations into lujvo gives:

Example 15.55. 

  • na'e klama becomes nalkla

  • na'e cadzu klama becomes naldzukla

  • na'e sutra cadzu klama becomes nalsu'adzukla

  • na'e ke sutra cadzu ke'e klama becomes nalsu'adzuke'ekla


Note: -kem- is the rafsi for ke , but it is omitted in the final lujvo as superfluous – ke'e is its own rafsi, and its inclusion in the lujvo implies a ke after the -nal- , since it needs to close something; only a ke immediately after the negation would make the ke'e meaningful in the tanru expressed in this lujvo.

In a lujvo, it is probably clearest to translate -nal- as non- , to match the English combining forms, except when the na'e has single word scope and English uses un- or im- to negate that single word. Translation style should determine the use of other than , non- , or another negator for na'e in tanru; the translator must render the Lojban into English so it is clear in context. Let's go back to our simplest example:

Example 15.56. 

mi na'e klama le zarci
I other-than (go-to) the market.
I not go-to the market.

Example 15.57. 

mi nalkla le zarci
I am-a-non-go-er-to the market.

Note that to compare with the English translation form using non- , we've translated the Lojban as if the selbri were a noun. Since Lojban klama is indifferently a noun, verb, or adjective, the difference is purely a translation change, not a true change in meaning. The English difference seems significant, though, due to the strongly different English grammatical forms and the ambiguity of English negation.

Consider the following highly problematic sentence:

Example 15.58. 

lo ca nolraitru
An-actual currently noblest-governor
be le fasygu'e cu krecau
of the French-country is-hair-without.

The current King of France is bald.


The selbri krecau negates with na'e as:

Example 15.59. 

lo ca nolraitru
An-actual currently noblest-governor
be le fasygu'e cu na'e krecau
of the French-country is-other-than hair-without.

The current King of France is other-than-bald.


or, as a lujvo:

Example 15.60. 

lo ca nolraitru
An-actual currently noblest-governor
be le fasygu'e cu nalkrecau
of the French-country is-non-hair-without.

The current King of France is a non-bald-one.


Example 15.59 and Example 15.60 express the predicate negation forms using a negation word ( na'e) or rafsi ( -nal-); yet they make positive assertions about the current King of France; ie., that he is other-than-bald or non-bald. This follows from the close binding of na'e to the brivla. The lujvo form makes this overt by absorbing the negative marker into the word.

Since there is no current King of France, it is false to say that he is bald, or non-bald, or to make any other affirmative claim about him. Any sentence about the current King of France containing only a selbri negation is as false as the sentence without the negation. No amount of selbri negations have any effect on the truth value of the sentence, which is invariably false , since no affirmative statement about the current King of France can be true. On the other hand, bridi negation does produce a truth:

Example 15.61. 

lo ca nolraitru
An-actual current noblest-governor
be le fasygu'e cu na krecau
of the French-country [false] is-hair-without.

It is false that the current King of France is bald.


Note: lo is used in these sentences because negation relates to truth conditions. To meaningfully talk about truth conditions in sentences carrying a description, it must be clear that the description actually applies to the referent. A sentence using le instead of lo can be true even if there is no current king of France, as long as the speaker and the listener agree to describe something as the current king of France. (See the explanations of le in Section 6.2.)

15.5. Expressing scales in selbri negation

In expressing a scalar negation, we can provide some indication of the scale, range, frame-of-reference, or universe of discourse that is being dealt with in an assertion. As stated in Section 15.4 , the default is the set of plausible alternatives. Thus if we say:

Example 15.62. 

le stizu cu na'e xunre
The chair is-a-non- (red-thing).

the pragmatic interpretation is that we mean a different color and not

Example 15.63. 

le stizu cu dzukla be le zarci
The chair walkingly-goes to the market.

However, if we have reason to be more explicit (an obtuse or contrary listener, or simply an overt logical analysis), we can clarify that we are referring to a color by saying:

Example 15.64. 

le stizu cu na'e xunre skari
The chair (is-of-a-non red) color.

We might also have reduced the pragmatic ambiguity by making the two trailing sumti values explicit (the as perceived by and under conditions places have been added to the place structure of xunre). But assume we have a really stubborn listener (an artificially semi-intelligent computer?) who will find a way to misinterpret Example 15.64 even with three specific sumti provided.

In this case, we use a sumti tagged with the sumtcita ci'u , which translates roughly as on a scale of X , where X is the sumti. For maximal clarity, the tagged sumti can be bound into the negated selbri with be. To clarify Example 15.64 , we might say:

Example 15.65. 

le stizu cu na'e xunre be ci'u loka skari
The chair is-non (red on a-scale-of a-property color-ness).

We can alternately use the sumtcita teci'e , based on ciste , which translates roughly as of a system of components X , for universes of discourse; in this case, we would express Example 15.64 as:

Example 15.66. 

le stizu cu na'e xunre
The chair is-a-non (red
be teci'e le skari
of a-system with-components-the colors)-thing.

Other places of ciste can be brought out using the grammar of selma'o BAI modals, allowing slightly different forms of expression, thus:

Example 15.67. 

le stizu cu na'e xunre
The chair is-a-non (red
be ci'e lo'i skari
of a-system which-is-the-set-of colors)-thing.

The cmavo le'a , also in selma'o BAI, can be used to specify a category:

Example 15.68. 

le stizu cu na'e xunre
The chair is-a-non (red
be le'a lo'i skari
of a-category which-is-the-set-of colors)-thing.

which is minimally different in meaning from Example 15.67.

The cmavo na'e is not the only member of selma'o NAhE. If we want to express a scalar negation which is a polar opposite, we use the cmavo to'e , which is grammatically equivalent to na'e :

Example 15.69. 

le stizu cu to'e xunre be ci'u loka skari
The chair is-a-(opposite-of red) on scale a-property-of color-ness.

Likewise, the midpoint of a scale can be expressed with the cmavo no'e , also grammatically equivalent to na'e. Here are some parallel examples of na'e , no'e , and to'e :

Example 15.70. 

ta melbi
That is-beautiful.

Example 15.71. 

ta na'e melbi
That is-other-than beautiful.

That is ugly [in one sense].


Example 15.72. 

ta no'e melbi
That is-neutrally beautiful.

That is plain/ordinary-looking (neither ugly nor beautiful).


Example 15.73. 

ta to'e melbi
That is-opposite-of beautiful.

That is ugly/very ugly/repulsive.


The cmavo to'e has the assigned rafsi -tol- and -to'e- ; the cmavo no'e has the assigned rafsi -nor- and -no'e-. The selbri in Example 15.71 through Example 15.73 could be replaced by the lujvo nalmle , normle , and tolmle respectively.

This large variety of scalar negations is provided because different scales have different properties. Some scales are open-ended in both directions: there is no ultimately ugly or ultimately beautiful. Other scales, like temperature, are open at one end and closed at the other: there is a minimum temperature (so-called absolute zero) but no maximum temperature. Still other scales are closed at both ends.

Correspondingly, some selbri have no obvious to'e - what is the opposite of a dog? – while others have more than one, and need ci'u to specify which opposite is meant.

15.6. sumti negation

There are two ways of negating sumti in Lojban. We have the choice of quantifying the sumti with zero, or of applying the sumti-negator na'ebo before the sumti. It turns out that a zero quantification serves for contradictory negation. As the cmavo we use implies, na'ebo forms a scalar negation.

Let us show examples of each.

Example 15.74. 

no lo ca nolraitru be
Zero of-those-who-are currently noblest-governors of
le fasygu'e cu krecau
the French-country are-hair-without.

No current king of France is bald.


Is Example 15.74 true? Yes, because it merely claims that of the current Kings of France, however many there may be, none are bald, which is plainly true, since there are no such current Kings of France.

Now let us look at the same sentence using na'ebo negation:

Example 15.75. 

na'ebo lo ca nolraitru
Something-other-than (the current noblest-governor
be le fasygu'e cu krecau
of the French-country) is-hair-without.

Something other than the current King of France is bald.


Example 15.75 is true provided that something reasonably describable as other than a current King of France , such as the King of Saudi Arabia, or a former King of France, is in fact bald.

In place of na'ebo , you may also use no'ebo and to'ebo , to be more specific about the sumti which would be appropriate in place of the stated sumti. Good examples are hard to come by, but here's a valiant try:

Example 15.76. 

mi klama to'ebo la .bastn.
I go-to the-opposite-of that-named Boston.

I go to Perth.


(Boston and Perth are nearly, but not quite, antipodal cities. In a purely United States context, San Francisco might be a better opposite.) Coming up with good examples is difficult, because attaching to'ebo to a description sumti is usually the same as attaching to'e to the selbri of the description.

It is not possible to transform sumti negations of either type into bridi negations or scalar selbri negations. Negations of sumti will be used in Lojban conversation. The inability to manipulate these negations logically will, it is hoped, prevent the logical errors that result when natural languages attempt corresponding manipulations.

15.7. Negation of minor grammatical constructs

We have a few other constructs that can be negated, all of them based on negating individual words. For such negation, we use the suffix-combining negator, which is nai. nai , by the way, is almost always written as a compound into the previous word that it is negating, although it is a regular separate-word cmavo and the sole member of selma'o NAI.

Most of these negation forms are straightforward, and should be discussed and interpreted in connection with an analysis of the particular construct being negated. Thus, we will not go into much detail here.

The following are places where nai is used:

When attached to tenses and modals (see Section 9.13 , Section 10.9 , Section 10.18 and Section 10.20), the nai suffix usually indicates a contradictory negation of the tagged bridi. Thus punai as a tense inflection means not-in-the-past , or not-previously , without making any implication about any other time period unless explicitly stated. As a result,

Example 15.77. 

mi na pu klama le zarci
I [false] [past] go-to the store.

I didn't go to the store.


and

Example 15.78. 

mi punai klama le zarci
I [past-not] go-to the store.

I didn't go to the store.


mean exactly the same thing, although there may be a difference of emphasis.

Tenses and modals can be logically connected, with the logical connectives containing contradictory negations; this allows negated tenses and modals to be expressed positively using logical connectives. Thus punai je ca means the same thing as pu naje ca.

As a special case, a -nai attached to the interval modifiers of selma'o TAhE, ROI, or ZAhO (explained in Chapter 10) signals a scalar negation:

Example 15.79. 

mi paroinai dansu le bisli
I [once]-[not] dance-on the ice

means that I dance on the ice either zero or else two or more times within the relevant time interval described by the bridi. Example 15.79 is very different from the English use of not once , which is an emphatic way of saying never – that is, exactly zero times.

In indicators and attitudinals of selma'o UI or CAI, nai denotes a polar negation. As discussed in Section 13.4 , most indicators have an implicit scale, and nai changes the indicator to refer to the opposite end of the scale. Thus .uinai expresses unhappiness, and .ienai expresses disagreement (not ambivalence, which is expressed with the neutral or undecided intensity as .iecu'i).

Vocative cmavo of selma'o COI are considered a kind of indicator, but one which identifies the listener. Semantically, we could dispense with about half of the COI selma'o words based on the scalar paradigm. For example, co'o could be expressed as coinai. However, this is not generally done.

Most of the COI cmavo are used in what are commonly called protocol situations. These protocols are used, for example, in radio conversations, which often take place in a noisy environment. The negatives of protocol words tend to convey diametrically opposite communications situations (as might be expected). Therefore, only one protocol vocative is dependent on nai : negative acknowledgement, which is je'enai ( I didn't get that).

Unlike the attitudinal indicators, which tend to be unimportant in noisy situations, the protocol vocatives become more important. So if, in a noisy environment, a protocol listener makes out only nai , he or she can presume it is a negative acknowledgement and repeat transmission or otherwise respond accordingly. Section 13.14 provides more detail on this topic.

The abstractors of selma'o NU follow the pattern of the tenses and modals. NU allows negative abstractions, especially in compound abstractions connected by logical connectives: pu'ujeza'inai , which corresponds to pu'u jenai za'i just as punai je ca corresponds to pu naje ca. It is not clear how much use logically connected abstractors will be: see Section 11.12.

A nai attached to a non-logical connective (of selma'o JOI or BIhI) is a scalar negation, and says that the bridi is false under the specified mixture, but that another connective is applicable. Non-logical connectives are discussed in Section 14.14.

15.8. Truth questions

One application of negation is in answer to truth questions (those which expect the answers Yes or No). The truth question cmavo xu is in selma'o UI; placed at the beginning of a sentence, it asks whether the sentence as a whole is true or false.

Example 15.80. 

xu la .djan. pu klama
Is-it-true-that: (that-named John previously went-to
la .paris. .e la .rom.
that-named Paris and that-named Rome.)

You can now use each of the several kinds of negation we've discussed in answer to this (presuming the same question and context for each answer).

The straightforward negative answer is grammatically equivalent to the expanded sentence with the na immediately after the cu (and before any tense/modal):

Example 15.81. 

na go'i
[false] [repeat-previous]

No.


which means

Example 15.82. 

la .djan. [cu] na pu klama
That-named John [false] previously went-to
la .paris. .e la .rom.
that-named Paris and that-named Rome.

It's not true that John went to Paris and Rome.


The respondent can change the tense, putting the na in either before or after the new tense:

Example 15.83. 

na ba go'i
[false] [future] [repeat-previous]

meaning

Example 15.84. 

la .djan. [cu] na ba klama
That-named John [false] later will-go-to
la .paris. .e la .rom.
that-named Paris and that-named Rome.

It is false that John will go to Paris and Rome.


or alternatively

Example 15.85. 

ba na go'i
[future] [false] [repeat-previous]

meaning

Example 15.86. 

la .djan. [cu] ba na
that-named John later-will [false]
klama la .paris. .e la .rom.
go-to that-named Paris and that-named Rome.

We stated in Section 15.2 that sentences like Example 15.84 and Example 15.86 appear to be semantically identical, but that subtle semantic distinctions may eventually be found.

You can also use a scalar negation with na'e , in which case, it is equivalent to putting a na'eke immediately after any tense:

Example 15.87. 

na'e go'i
other-than [repeat-previous]

which means

Example 15.88. 

la .djan. [cu] pu na'eke klama [ke'e]
that-named John previously other-than( went-to )
la .paris. .e la .rom.
that-named Paris and that-named Rome.

He might have telephoned the two cities instead of going there. The unnecessary ke and ke'e would have been essential if the selbri had been a tanru.

15.9. Affirmations

There is an explicit positive form for both selma'o NA ( ja'a) and selma'o NAhE ( je'a), each of which would supplant the corresponding negator in the grammatical position used, allowing one to assert the positive in response to a negative question or statement without confusion. Assuming the same context as in Section 15.8 :

Example 15.89. 

xu na go'i
Is-it-true-that [false] [repeat-previous]?

or equivalently

Example 15.90. 

xu la .djan. [cu] na pu
Is-it-true-that: that-named John [false] previously
klama la .paris. .e la .rom.
went-to that-name Paris and that-named Rome.

The obvious, but incorrect, positive response to this negative question is:

Example 15.91. 

go'i

[repeat-previous]


A plain go'i does not mean Yes it is ; it merely abbreviates repeating the previous statement unmodified, including any negators present; and Example 15.91 actually states that it is false that John went to both Paris and Rome.

When considering:

Example 15.92. 

na go'i
[false] [repeat-previous]

as a response to a negative question like Example 15.90 , Lojban designers had to choose between two equally plausible interpretations with opposite effects. Does Example 15.92 create a double negative in the sentence by adding a new na to the one already there (forming a double negative and hence a positive statement), or does the na replace the previous one, leaving the sentence unchanged?

It was decided that substitution, the latter alternative, is the preferable choice, since it is then clear whether we intend a positive or a negative sentence without performing any manipulations. This is the way English usually works, but not all languages work this way – Russian, Japanese, and Navajo all interpret a negative reply to a negative question as positive.

The positive assertion cmavo of selma'o NA, which is "ja'a", can also replace the na in the context, giving:

Example 15.93. 

ja'a go'i
[true] [repeat-previous]

John did go to Paris and Rome.


ja'a can replace na in a similar manner wherever the latter is used:

Example 15.94. 

mi ja'a klama le zarci
I [true] go-to the store

I indeed go to the store.


je'a can replace na'e in exactly the same way, stating that scalar negation does not apply, and that the relation indeed holds as stated. In the absence of a negation context, it emphasizes the positive:

Example 15.95. 

ta je'a melbi
that is-indeed beautiful.

15.10. Metalinguistic negation forms

The question of truth or falsity is not entirely synonymous with negation. Consider the English sentence

Example 15.96. 

I have not stopped beating my wife.


If I never started such a heinous activity, then this sentence is neither true nor false. Such a negation simply says that something is wrong with the non-negated statement. Generally, we then use either tone of voice or else a correction to express a preferred true claim: I never have beaten my wife.

Negations which follow such a pattern are called metalinguistic negations. In natural languages, the mark of metalinguistic negation is that an indication of a correct statement always, or almost always, follows the negation. Tone of voice or emphasis may be further used to clarify the error.

Negations of every sort must be expressible in Lojban; errors are inherent to human thought, and are not excluded from the language. When such negations are metalinguistic, we must separate them from logical claims about the truth or falsity of the statement, as well as from scalar negations which may not easily express (or imply) the preferred claim. Because Lojban allows concepts to be so freely combined in tanru, limits on what is plausible or not plausible tend to be harder to determine.

Mimicking the muddled nature of natural language negation would destroy this separation. Since Lojban does not use tone of voice, we need other means to metalinguistically indicate what is wrong with a statement. When the statement is entirely inappropriate, we need to be able to express metalinguistic negation in a more non-specific fashion.

Here is a list of some different kinds of metalinguistic negation with English-language examples:

Example 15.97. 

I have not stopped beating my wife

(I never started – failure of presupposition).


Example 15.98. 

5 is not blue

(color does not apply to abstract concepts – failure of category).


Example 15.99. 

The current King of France is not bald.

(there is no current King of France – existential failure)


Example 15.100. 

I do not have THREE children.

(I have two – simple undue quantity)


Example 15.101. 

I have not held THREE jobs previously, but four.

(inaccurate quantity; the difference from the previous example is that someone who has held four jobs has also held three jobs)


Example 15.102. 

It is not good, but bad.

(undue quantity negation indicating that the value on a scale for measuring the predicate is incorrect)


Example 15.103. 

She is not PRETTY; she is beautiful.

(undue quantity transferred to a non-numeric scale)


Example 15.104. 

The house is not blue, but green.

(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a related category applies)


Example 15.105. 

The house is not blue, but is colored.

(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but a broader category applies)


Example 15.106. 

The cat is not blue, but long-haired.

(the scale/category being used is incorrect, but an unrelated category applies)


Example 15.107. 

A: He ain't coming today.

B: Ain't ain't a word.

(solecism, or improper grammatical action)


Example 15.108. 

I haven't STOOPED beating my wife; I've STOPPED.

(spelling or mispronunciation error)


Example 15.109. 

Not only was it a sheep, it was a black sheep.

(non-contradictory correction)


The set of possible metalinguistic errors is open-ended.

Many of these forms have a counterpart in the various examples that we've discussed under logical negation. Metalinguistic negation doesn't claim that the sentence is false or true, though. Rather, it claims that, due to some error in the statement, true and false don't really apply.

Because one can metalinguistically negate a true statement intending a non-contradictory correction (say, a spelling error), we need a way (or ways) to metalinguistically negate a statement which is independent of our logical negation schemes using na , na'e and kin. The cmavo na'i is assigned this function. If it is present in a statement, it indicates metalinguistically that something in the statement is incorrect. This metalinguistic negation must override any evaluation of the logic of the statement. It is equally allowed in both positive and negative statements.

Since na'i is not a logical operator, multiple occurrences of na'i need not be assumed to cancel each other. Indeed, we can use the position of na'i to indicate metalinguistically what is incorrect, preparatory to correcting it in a later sentence; for this reason, we give na'i the grammar of UI. The inclusion of na'i anywhere in a sentence makes it a non-assertion, and suggests one or more pitfalls in assigning a truth value.

Let us briefly indicate how the above-mentioned metalinguistic errors can be identified. Other metalinguistic problems can then be marked by devising analogies to these examples:

Existential failure can be marked by attaching na'i to the descriptor lo or the poi in a da poi -form sumti. (See Section 6.2 and Section 16.4 for details on these constructions.) Remember that if a le sumti seems to refer to a non-existent referent, you may not understand what the speaker has in mind – the appropriate response is then ki'a , asking for clarification.

Presupposition failure can be marked directly if the presupposition is overt; if not, one can insert a mock presupposition to question with the sumtcita (selma'o BAI) word ji'u ; ji'uku thus explicitly refers to an unexpressed assumption, and ji'una'iku metalinguistically says that something is wrong with that assumption. (See Chapter 9.)

Scale errors and category errors can be similarly expressed with selma'o BAI. le'a has meaning of category/class/type X , ci'u has meaning on scale X , and ci'e , based on ciste , can be used to talk about universes of discourse defined either as systems or sets of components, as shown in Section 15.8. kai and la'u also exist in BAI for discussing other quality and quantity errors.

We have to make particular note of potential problems in the areas of undue quantity and incorrect scale/category. Assertions about the relationships between gismu are among the basic substance of the language. It is thus invalid to logically require that if something is blue, that it is colored, or if it is not-blue, then it is some other color. In Lojban, blanu ( blue) is not explicitly defined as a skari ( color). Similarly, it is not implicit that the opposite of good is bad.

This mutual independence of gismu is only an ideal. Pragmatically, people will categorize things based on their world-views. We will write dictionary definitions that will relate gismu, unfortunately including some of these world-view assumptions. Lojbanists should try to minimize these assumptions, but this seems a likely area where logical rules will break down (or where Sapir-Whorf effects will be made evident). In terms of negation, however, it is vital that we clearly preserve the capability of denying a presumably obvious scale or category assumption.

Solecisms, grammatical and spelling errors will be marked by marking the offending word or phrase with na'i (in the manner of any selma'o UI cmavo). In this sense, na'i becomes equivalent to the English metalinguistic marker [sic]. Purists may choose to use ZOI or LOhU/LEhU quotes or sa'a -marked corrections to avoid repeating a truly unparsable passage, especially if a computer is to analyze the speech/text. See Section 19.12 for explanations of these usages.

In summary, metalinguistic negation will typically take the form of referring to a previous statement and marking it with one or more na'i to indicate what metalinguistic errors have been made, and then repeating the statement with corrections. References to previous statements may be full repetitions, or may use members of selma'o GOhA. na'i at the beginning of a statement merely says that something is inappropriate about the statement, without specificity.

In normal use, metalinguistic negation requires that a corrected statement follow the negated statement. In Lojban, however, it is possible to completely and unambiguously specify metalinguistic errors without correcting them. It will eventually be seen whether an uncorrected metalinguistic negation remains an acceptable form in Lojban. In such a statement, metalinguistic expression would involve an ellipsis not unlike that of tenseless expression.

Note that metalinguistic negation gives us another kind of legitimate negative answer to a xu question (see Section 15.8). na'i will be used when something about the questioned statement is inappropriate, such as in questions like Have you stopped beating your wife? :

Example 15.110. 

xu do sisti lezu'o
is-it-true-that: you cease the-activity-of
do rapydarxi ledo fetspe
you repeat-hitting your female-spouse?

Have you stopped beating your wife?


Responses could include:

Example 15.111. 

na'i go'i
[metalinguistic-negation] [repeat-previous]

The bridi as a whole is inappropriate in some way.


Example 15.112. 

go'i na'i
[repeat-previous] [metalinguistic-negation]

The selbri ( sisti) is inappropriate in some way.


One can also specifically qualify the metalinguistic negation, by explicitly repeating the erroneous portion of the bridi to be metalinguistically negated, or adding on of the selma'o BAI qualifiers mentioned above:

Example 15.113. 

go'i ji'una'iku
[repeat-previous] [presupposition-wrong]

Some presupposition is wrong with the previous bridi.


Finally, one may metalinguistically affirm a bridi with jo'a , another cmavo of selma'o UI. A common use for jo'a might be to affirm that a particular construction, though unusual or counterintuitive, is in fact correct; another usage would be to disagree with – by overriding – a respondent's metalinguistic negation.

15.11. Summary – are all possible questions about negation now answered?

Example 15.114. 

na go'i .ije na'e go'i .ije na'i go'i


Chapter 16. Who did you pass on the road? Nobody: Lojban and logic

The picture for chapter 16

16.1. What's wrong with this picture?

The following brief dialogue is from Chapter 7 of Through The Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll.

Example 16.1. 

Who did you pass on the road? the King went on, holding out his hand to the Messenger for some more hay.


Example 16.2. 

Nobody, said the Messenger.


Example 16.3. 

Quite right, said the King: this young lady saw him too. So of course Nobody walks slower than you.


Example 16.4. 

I do my best, the Messenger said in a sulky tone. I'm sure nobody walks much faster than I do!


Example 16.5. 

He can't do that, said the King, or else he'd have been here first.


This nonsensical conversation results because the King insists on treating the word nobody as a name, a name of somebody. However, the essential nature of the English word nobody is that it doesn't refer to somebody; or to put the matter another way, there isn't anybody to which it refers.

The central point of contradiction in the dialogue arises in Example 16.3 , when the King says ... Nobody walks slower than you. This claim would be plausible if Nobody were really a name, since the Messenger could only pass someone who does walk more slowly than he. But the Messenger interprets the word nobody in the ordinary English way, and says (in Example 16.4) ... nobody walks much faster than I do (i.e., I walk faster, or as fast as, almost everyone), which the King then again misunderstands. Both the King and the Messenger are correct according to their respective understandings of the ambiguous word nobody/Nobody.

There are Lojban words or phrases corresponding to the problematic English words somebody , nobody , anybody , everybody (and their counterparts some/no/any/everyone and some/no/any/everything), but they obey rules which can often be surprising to English-speakers. The dialogue above simply cannot be translated into Lojban without distortion: the name Nobody would have to be represented by a Lojban name, which would spoil the perfection of the wordplay. As a matter of fact, this is the desired result: a logical language should not allow two conversationalists to affirm Nobody walks slower than the Messenger and Nobody walks faster than the Messenger and both be telling the truth. (Unless, of course, nobody but the Messenger walks at all, or everyone walks at exactly the same speed.)

This chapter will explore the Lojban mechanisms that allow the correct and consistent construction of sentences like those in the dialogue. There are no new grammatical constructs explained in this chapter; instead, it discusses the way in which existing facilities that allow Lojban-speakers to resolve problems like the above, using the concepts of modern logic. However, we will not approach the matter from the viewpoint of logicians, although readers who know something of logic will discover familiar notions in Lojban guise.

Although Lojban is called a logical language, not every feature of it is logical. In particular, the use of le is incompatible with logical reasoning based on the description selbri, because that selbri may not truthfully apply: you cannot conclude from my statement that

Example 16.6. 

mi viska le nanmu
I see the-one-I-refer-to-as-the man.

I see the man/men.


that there really is a man; the only thing you can conclude is that there is one thing (or more) that I choose to refer to as a man. You cannot even tell which man is meant for sure without asking me (although communication is served if you already know from the context).

In addition, the use of attitudinals (see Chapter 13) often reduces or removes the ability to make deductions about the bridi to which those attitudinals are applied. From the fact that I hope George will win the election, you can conclude nothing about George's actual victory or defeat.

16.2. Existential claims, prenexes, and variables

Let us consider, to begin with, a sentence that is not in the dialogue:

Example 16.7. 

Something sees me.


There are two plausible Lojban translations of Example 16.7. The simpler one is:

Example 16.8. 

[zo'e] viska mi
Something-unspecified sees me.

The cmavo zo'e indicates that a sumti has been omitted (indeed, even zo'e itself can be omitted in this case, as explained in Section 7.7) and the listener must fill in the correct value from context. In other words, Example 16.8 means You-know-what sees me.

However, Example 16.7 is just as likely to assert simply that there is someone who sees me, in which case a correct translation is:

Example 16.9. 

da zo'u da viska mi
There-is-an-X such-that X sees me.

Example 16.9 does not presuppose that the listener knows who sees the speaker, but simply tells the listener that there is someone who sees the speaker. Statements of this kind are called existential claims. (Formally, the one doing the seeing is not restricted to being a person; it could be an animal or – in principle – an inanimate object. We will see in Section 16.4 how to represent such restrictions.)

Example 16.9 has a two-part structure: there is the part da zo'u , called the prenex, and the part da viska mi , the main bridi. Almost any Lojban bridi can be preceded by a prenex, which syntactically is any number of sumti followed by the cmavo zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU). For the moment, the sumti will consist of one or more of the cmavo da , de , and di (of selma'o KOhA), glossed in the literal translations as X , Y , and Z respectively. By analogy to the terminology of symbolic logic, these cmavo are called variables.

Here is an example of a prenex with two variables:

Example 16.10. 

da de zo'u da prami de
There-is-an-X there-is-a-Y such that X loves Y.

Somebody loves somebody.


In Example 16.10 , the literal interpretation of the two variables da and de as there-is-an-X and there-is-a-Y tells us that there are two things which stand in the relationship that one loves the other. It might be the case that the supposed two things are really just a single thing that loves itself; nothing in the Lojban version of Example 16.10 rules out that interpretation, which is why the colloquial translation does not say Somebody loves somebody else. The things referred to by different variables may be different or the same. (We use somebody here rather than something for naturalness; lovers and beloveds are usually persons, though the Lojban does not say so.)

It is perfectly all right for the variables to appear more than once in the main bridi:

Example 16.11. 

da zo'u da prami da
There-is-an-X such-that X loves X

Somebody loves himself/herself.


What Example 16.11 claims is fundamentally different from what Example 16.10 claims, because da prami da is not structurally the same as da prami de. However,

Example 16.12. 

de zo'u de prami de
There-is-a-Y such-that Y loves Y

means exactly the same thing as Example 16.11 ; it does not matter which variable is used as long as they are used consistently.

It is not necessary for a variable to be a sumti of the main bridi directly:

Example 16.13. 

da zo'u le da gerku cu viska mi
There-is-an-X such-that the of-X dog sees me

Somebody's dog sees me


is perfectly correct even though the da is used only in a possessive construction. (Possessives are explained in Section 8.7.)

It is very peculiar, however, even if technically grammatical, for the variable not to appear in the main bridi at all:

Example 16.14. 

da zo'u la .ralf. gerku
There-is-an-X such-that that-named Ralph is-a-dog

There is something such that Ralph is a dog.


has a variable bound in a prenex whose relevance to the claim of the following bridi is completely unspecified.

16.3. Universal claims

What happens if we substitute everything for something in Example 16.7 ? We get:

Example 16.15. 

Everything sees me.


Of course, this example is false, because there are many things which do not see the speaker. It is not easy to find simple truthful examples of so-called universal claims (those which are about everything), so bear with us for a while. (Indeed, some Lojbanists tend to avoid universal claims even in other languages, since they are so rarely true in Lojban.)

The Lojban translation of Example 16.15 is

Example 16.16. 

ro da zo'u da viska mi
For-every X : X sees me.

When the variable cmavo da is preceded by ro , the combination means For every X rather than There is an X. Superficially, these English formulations look totally unrelated: Section 16.6 will bring them within a common viewpoint. For the moment, accept the use of ro da for everything on faith.

Here is a universal claim with two variables:

Example 16.17. 

ro da ro de zo'u da prami de
For-every X, for-every Y : X loves Y.

Everything loves everything.


Again, X and Y can represent the same thing, so Example 16.17 does not mean Everything loves everything else. Furthermore, because the claim is universal, it is about every thing, not merely every person, so we cannot use everyone or everybody in the translation.

Note that ro appears before both da and de. If ro is omitted before either variable, we get a mixed claim, partly existential like those of Section 16.2 , partly universal.

Example 16.18. 

ro da de zo'u da viska de
For-every X, there-is-a-Y : X sees Y.

Everything sees something.


Example 16.19. 

da ro de zo'u da viska de
There-is-an-X such-that-for-every Y : X sees Y.

Something sees everything.


Example 16.18 and Example 16.19 mean completely different things. Example 16.18 says that for everything, there is something which it sees, not necessarily the same thing seen for every seer. Example 16.19 , on the other hand, says that there is a particular thing which can see everything that there is (including itself). Both of these are fairly silly, but they are different kinds of silliness.

There are various possible translations of universal claims in English: sometimes we use anybody/anything rather than everybody/everything. Often it makes no difference which of these is used: when it does make a difference, it is a rather subtle one which is explained in Section 16.8.

16.4. Restricted claims: da poi

The universal claims of Section 16.3 are not only false but absurd: there is really very little to be said that is both true and non-trivial about every object whatsoever. Furthermore, we have been glossing over the distinction between everything and everybody and the other pairs ending in -thing and -body. It is time to bring up the most useful feature of Lojban variables: the ability to restrict their ranges.

In Lojban, a variable da , de , or di may be followed by a poi relative clause in order to restrict the range of things that the variable describes. Relative clauses are described in detail in Chapter 8 , but the kind we will need at present consist of poi followed by a bridi (often just a selbri) terminated with ku'o or vau (which can usually be elided). Consider the difference between

Example 16.20. 

da zo'u da viska la .djim.
There-is-an-X : X sees that-named Jim.

Something sees Jim.


and

Example 16.21. 

da poi prenu zo'u da viska la .djim.
There-is-an-X which is-a-person : X sees that-named Jim.

Someone sees Jim.


In Example 16.20 , the variable da can refer to any object whatever; there are no restrictions on it. In Example 16.21 , da is restricted by the poi prenu relative clause to persons only, and so da poi prenu translates as someone. (The difference between someone and somebody is a matter of English style, with no real counterpart in Lojban.) If Example 16.21 is true, then Example 16.20 must be true, but not necessarily vice versa.

Universal claims benefit even more from the existence of relative clauses. Consider

Example 16.22. 

ro da zo'u da vasxu
For-every X : X breathes

Everything breathes


and

Example 16.23. 

ro da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu
For-every X which is-a-dog : X breathes.

Every dog breathes.

Each dog breathes.

All dogs breathe.


Example 16.22 is a silly falsehood, but Example 16.23 is an important truth (at least if applied in a timeless or potential sense: see Section 10.19). Note the various colloquial translations every dog , each dog , and all dogs. They all come to the same thing in Lojban, since what is true of every dog is true of all dogs. All dogs is treated as an English plural and the others as singular, but Lojban makes no distinction.

If we make an existential claim about dogs rather than a universal one, we get:

Example 16.24. 

da poi gerku zo'u da vasxu
There-is-an-X which is-a-dog : X breathes.

Some dog breathes.


16.5. Dropping the prenex

It isn't really necessary for every Lojban bridi involving variables to have a prenex on the front. In fact, none of the examples we've seen so far required prenexes at all! The rule for dropping the prenex is simple: if the variables appear in the same order within the bridi as they did in the prenex, then the prenex is superfluous. However, any ro or poi appearing in the prenex must be transferred to the first occurrence of the variable in the main part of the bridi. Thus, Example 16.9 becomes just:

Example 16.25. 

da viska mi
There-is-an-X-which sees me.

Something sees me.


and Example 16.23 becomes:

Example 16.26. 

ro da poi gerku cu vasxu
For-every X which is-a-dog, it-breathes.

Every dog breathes.


You might well suppose, then, that the purpose of the prenex is to allow the variables in it to appear in a different order than the bridi order, and that would be correct. Consider

Example 16.27. 

ro da poi prenu ku'o de
For-every X which is-a-person, there-is-a-Y
poi gerku ku'o zo'u de batci da
which is-a-dog : Y bites X.

The prenex of Example 16.27 is like that of Example 16.18 (but with relative clauses): it notes that the following bridi is true of every person with respect to some dog, not necessarily the same dog for each. But in the main bridi part, the de appears before the da. Therefore, the true translation is

Example 16.28. 

Every person is bitten by some dog (or other).


If we tried to omit the prenex and move the ro and the relative clauses into the main bridi, we would get:

Example 16.29. 

de poi gerku cu batci ro da poi prenu
There-is-a-Y which is-a-dog which-bites every X which is-a-person

Some dog bites everyone.


which has the structure of Example 16.19 : it says that there is a dog (call him Fido) who bites, has bitten, or will bite every person that has ever existed! We can safely rule out Fido's existence, and say that Example 16.29 is false, while agreeing to Example 16.27.

Even so, Example 16.27 is most probably false, since some people never experience dogbite. Examples like Example 16.27 and Example 16.23 (might there be some dogs which never have breathed, because they died as embryos?) indicate the danger in Lojban of universal claims even when restricted. In English we are prone to say that Everyone says or that Everybody does or that Everything is when in fact there are obvious counterexamples which we are ignoring for the sake of making a rhetorical point. Such statements are plain falsehoods in Lojban, unless saved by a context (such as tense) which implicitly restricts them.

How can we express Example 16.27 in Lojban without a prenex? Since it is the order in which variables appear that matters, we can say:

Example 16.30. 

ro da poi prenu cu se batci de poi gerku
Every X which is-a-person is-bitten-by some-Y which is-a-dog.

using the conversion operator se (explained in Section 5.11) to change the selbri batci ( bites) into se batci ( is bitten by). The translation given in Example 16.28 uses the corresponding strategy in English, since English does not have prenexes (except in strained logician's English). This implies that a sentence with both a universal and an existential variable can't be freely converted with se ; one must be careful to preserve the order of the variables.

If a variable occurs more than once, then any ro or poi decorations are moved only to the first occurrence of the variable when the prenex is dropped. For example,

Example 16.31. 

di poi prenu zo'u
There-is-a-Z which is-a-person :
ti xarci di di
this-thing is-a-weapon for-use-against-Z by-Z

This is a weapon for someone to use against himself/herself.


(in which di is used rather than da just for variety) loses its prenex as follows:

Example 16.32. 

ti xarci di poi prenu ku'o di
This-thing is-a-weapon-for-use-against some-Z which is-a-person by-Z.

As the examples in this section show, dropping the prenex makes for terseness of expression often even greater than that of English (Lojban is meant to be an unambiguous language, not necessarily a terse or verbose one), provided the rules are observed.

16.6. Variables with generalized quantifiers

So far, we have seen variables with either nothing in front, or with the cmavo ro in front. Now ro is a Lojban number, and means all ; thus ro prenu means all persons , just as re prenu means two persons. In fact, unadorned da is also taken to have an implicit number in front of it, namely su'o , which means at least one. Why is this? Consider Example 16.9 again, this time with an explicit su'o :

Example 16.33. 

su'o da zo'u da viska mi
For-at-least-one X : X sees me.

Something sees me.


From this version of Example 16.9 , we understand the speaker's claim to be that of all the things that there are, at least one of them sees him or her. The corresponding universal claim, Example 16.16 , says that of all the things that exist, every one of them can see the speaker.

Any other number can be used instead of ro or su'o to precede a variable. Then we get claims like:

Example 16.34. 

re da zo'u da viska mi
For-two Xes : X sees me.

Two things see me.


This means that exactly two things, no more or less, saw the speaker on the relevant occasion. In English, we might take Two things see me to mean that at least two things see the speaker, but there might be more; in Lojban, though, that claim would have to be made as:

Example 16.35. 

su'ore da zo'u da viska mi
For-at-least-two Xes : X sees me.

which would be false if nothing, or only one thing, saw the speaker, but not otherwise. We note the su'o here meaning at least ; su'o by itself is short for su'opa where pa means one , as is explained in Section 18.9.

The prenex may be removed from Example 16.34 and Example 16.35 as from the others, leading to:

Example 16.36. 

re da viska mi
Two Xes see me.

and

Example 16.37. 

su'ore da viska mi
At-least-two Xes see me.

respectively, subject to the rules prescribed in Section 16.5.

Now we can explain the constructions ro prenu for all persons and re prenu for two persons which were casually mentioned at the beginning of this Section. In fact, ro prenu , a so-called indefinite description , is shorthand for ro DA poi prenu , where DA represents a fictitious variable that hasn't been used yet and will not be used in future. (Even if all three of da , de , and di have been used up, it does not matter, for there are ways of getting more variables, discussed in Section 16.14.) So in fact

Example 16.38. 

re prenu cu viska mi
Two persons see me.

is short for

Example 16.39. 

re da poi prenu cu viska mi
Two Xes which are-persons see me.

which in turn is short for:

Example 16.40. 

re da poi prenu zo'u da viska mi
For-two Xes which are-persons : X sees me.

Note that when we move more than one variable to the prenex (along with its attached relative clause), we must make sure that the variables are in the same order in the prenex as in the bridi proper.

16.7. Grouping of quantifiers

Let us consider a sentence containing two quantifier expressions neither of which is ro or su'o (remembering that su'o is implicit where no explicit quantifier is given):

Example 16.41. 

ci gerku cu batci re nanmu
Three dogs bite two men.

The question raised by Example 16.41 is, does each of the dogs bite the same two men, or is it possible that there are two different men per dog, for six men altogether? If the former interpretation is taken, the number of men involved is fixed at two; but if the latter, then the speaker has to be taken as saying that there might be any number of men between two and six inclusive. Let us transform Example 16.41 step by step as we did with Example 16.38 :

Example 16.42. 

ci da poi gerku cu batci re de poi nanmu
Three Xes which are-dogs bite two Ys which are-men.

(Note that we need separate variables da and de , because of the rule that says each indefinite description gets a variable never used before or since.)

Example 16.43. 

ci da poi gerku ku'o re de poi nanmu zo'u
For-three Xes which are-dogs -, for-two Ys which are-men :
da batci de
X bites Y.

Here we see that indeed each of the dogs is said to bite two men, and it might be different men each time; a total of six biting events altogether.

How then are we to express the other interpretation, in which just two men are involved? We cannot just reverse the order of variables in the prenex to

Example 16.44. 

re de poi nanmu ku'o ci da poi gerku zo'u
For-two Ys which are-men -, for-three Xes which are-dogs, :
da batci de
X bites Y.

for although we have now limited the number of men to exactly two, we end up with an indeterminate number of dogs, from three to six. The distinction is called a scope distinction : in Example 16.42 , ci gerku is said to have wider scope than re nanmu , and therefore precedes it in the prenex. In Example 16.44 the reverse is true.

The solution is to use a termset, which is a group of terms either joined by ce'e (of selma'o CEhE) between each term, or else surrounded by nu'i (of selma'o NUhI) on the front and nu'u (of selma'o NUhU) on the rear. Terms (which are either sumti or sumti prefixed by tense or modal tags) that are grouped into a termset are understood to have equal scope:

Example 16.45. 

ci gerku ce'e re nanmu cu batci
nu'i ci gerku re nanmu [nu'u] cu batci
Three dogs [plus] two men, bite.

which picks out two groups, one of three dogs and the other of two men, and says that every one of the dogs bites each of the men. The second Lojban version uses forethought; note that nu'u is an elidable terminator, and in this case can be freely elided.

What about descriptors, like ci lo gerku , le nanmu or re le ci mlatu ? They too can be grouped in termsets, but usually need not be, except for the lo case which functions like the case without a descriptor. Unless an actual quantifier precedes it, le nanmu means ro le nanmu , as is explained in Section 6.7. Two sumti with ro quantifiers are independent of order, so:

Example 16.46. 

[ro] le ci gerku cu batci [ro] le re nanmu
[All-of] the three dogs bite [all-of] the two men.

means that each of the dogs specified bites each of the men specified, for six acts of biting altogether. However, if there is an explicit quantifier before le other than ro , the problems of this section reappear.

16.8. The problem of any

Consider the English sentence

Example 16.47. 

Anyone who goes to the store, walks across the field.


Using the facilities already discussed, a plausible translation might be

Example 16.48. 

ro da poi klama le zarci cu cadzu le foldi
All X such-that-it goes-to the store walks-on the field.

Everyone who goes to the store walks across the field.


But there is a subtle difference between Example 16.47 and Example 16.48. Example 16.48 tells us that, in fact, there are people who go to the store, and that they walk across the field. A sumti of the type ro da poi klama requires that there are things which klama : Lojban universal claims always imply the corresponding existential claims as well. Example 16.47 , on the other hand, does not require that there are any people who go to the store: it simply states, conditionally, that if there is anyone who goes to the store, he or she walks across the field as well. This conditional form mirrors the true Lojban translation of Example 16.47 :

Example 16.49. 

ro da zo'u da go klama le zarci
For-every X : X if-and-only-if it-is-a-goer-to the store
gi cadzu le foldi
is-a-walker-on the field.

Although Example 16.49 is a universal claim as well, its universality only implies that there are objects of some sort or another in the universe of discourse. Because the claim is conditional, nothing is implied about the existence of goers-to-the-store or of walkers-on-the-field, merely that any entity which is one is also the other.

There is another use of any in English that is not universal but existential. Consider

Example 16.50. 

I need any box that is bigger than this one.


Example 16.50 does not at all mean that I need every box bigger than this one, for indeed I do not; I require only one box. But the naive translation

Example 16.51. 

mi nitcu da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti
I need some-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one

does not work either, because it asserts that there really is such a box, as the prenex paraphrase demonstrates:

Example 16.52. 

da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u mi nitcu da
There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this : I need X.

What to do? Well, the x2 place of nitcu can be filled with an event as well as an object, and in fact Example 16.51 can also be paraphrased as:

Example 16.53. 

mi nitcu lo nu mi ponse lo tanxe
I need an event-of I possess some box(es)
poi bramau ti
which-are bigger-than this-one.

Rewritten using variables, Example 16.53 becomes

Example 16.54. 

mi nitcu lo nu da zo'u
I need an event-of there-being-an-X such-that:
da se ponse mi
X is-possessed-by me
gi'e tanxe gi'e bramau ti
and is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-thing.

So we see that a prenex can be attached to a bridi that is within a sentence. By default, a variable always behaves as if it is bound in the prenex which (notionally) is attached to the smallest enclosing bridi, and its scope does not extend beyond that bridi. However, the variable may be placed in an outer prenex explicitly:

Example 16.55. 

da poi tanxe gi'e bramau ti zo'u
There-is-an-X which is-a-box and is-bigger-than this-one such-that:
mi nitcu le nu mi ponse da
I need the event-of my possessing X.

But what are the implications of Example 16.53 and Example 16.55 ? The main difference is that in Example 16.55 , the da is said to exist in the real world of the outer bridi; but in Example 16.53 , the existence is only within the inner bridi, which is a mere event that need not necessarily come to pass. So Example 16.55 means

Example 16.56. 

There's a box, bigger than this one, that I need


which is what Example 16.52 says, whereas Example 16.53 turns out to be an effective translation of our original Example 16.47. So uses of any that aren't universal end up being reflected by variables bound in the prenex of a subordinate bridi.

16.9. Negation boundaries

This section, as well as Section 16.10 through Section 16.12 , are in effect a continuation of Chapter 15 , introducing features of Lojban negation that require an understanding of prenexes and variables. In the examples below, there is a Y and the like must be understood as there is at least one Y, possibly more.

As explained in Section 15.2 , the negation of a bridi is usually accomplished by inserting na at the beginning of the selbri:

Example 16.57. 

mi na klama le zarci
I [false] go-to the store.

It is false that I go to the store.

I don't go to the store.


The other form of bridi negation is expressed by using the compound cmavo naku in the prenex, which is identified and compounded by the lexer before looking at the sentence grammar. In Lojban grammar, naku is then treated like a sumti. In a prenex, naku means precisely the same thing as the logician's it is not the case that in a similar English context. (Outside of a prenex, naku is also grammatically treated as a single entity – the equivalent of a sumti – but does not have this exact meaning; we'll discuss these other situations in Section 16.11.)

To represent a bridi negation using a prenex, remove the na from before the selbri and place naku at the left end of the prenex. This form is called external bridi negation , as opposed to internal bridi negation using na. The prenex version of Example 16.57 is

Example 16.58. 

naku zo'u mi klama le zarci
It-is-not-the-case-that : I go-to the store.

It is false that: I go to the store.


However, naku can appear at other points in the prenex as well. Compare

Example 16.59. 

naku de zo'u de zutse
It-is-not-the-case-that: for-some-Y : Y sits.
It-is-false-that: for-at-least-one-Y : Y sits.

It is false that something sits.

Nothing sits.


with

Example 16.60. 

su'ode naku zo'u de zutse
For-at-least-one-Y, it-is-false-that : Y sits.

There is something that doesn't sit.


The relative position of negation and quantification terms within a prenex has a drastic effect on meaning. Starting without a negation, we can have:

Example 16.61. 

roda su'ode zo'u da prami de
For-every-X, there-is-a-Y, such-that X loves Y.

Everybody loves at least one thing (each, not necessarily the same thing).


or:

Example 16.62. 

su'ode roda zo'u da prami de
There-is-a-Y, such-that-for-each-X : X loves Y.

There is at least one particular thing that is loved by everybody.


The simplest form of bridi negation to interpret is one where the negation term is at the beginning of the prenex:

Example 16.63. 

naku roda su'ode zo'u da prami de
It-is-false-that: for-every-X, there-is-a-Y, such-that: X loves Y.

It is false that: everybody loves at least one thing.

(At least) someone doesn't love anything.


the negation of Example 16.61 , and

Example 16.64. 

naku su'ode roda zo'u da prami de
It-is-false-that: there-is-a-Y such-that for-each-X : X loves Y.

It is false that: there is at least one thing that is loved by everybody.

There isn't any one thing that everybody loves.


the negation of Example 16.62.

The rules of formal logic require that, to move a negation boundary within a prenex, you must invert any quantifier that the negation boundary passes across. Inverting a quantifier means that any ro (all) is changed to su'o (at least one) and vice versa. Thus, Example 16.63 and Example 16.64 can be restated as, respectively:

Example 16.65. 

su'oda naku su'ode zo'u da prami de
For-some-X, it-is-false-that: there-is-a-Y such-that: X loves Y.

There is somebody who doesn't love anything.


and:

Example 16.66. 

rode naku roda zo'u da prami de
For-every-Y, it-is-false-that: for-every-X : X loves Y.

For each thing, it is not true that everybody loves it.


Another movement of the negation boundary produces:

Example 16.67. 

su'oda rode naku zo'u da prami de
There-is-an-X such-that-for-every-Y, it-is-false-that : X loves Y.

There is someone who, for each thing, doesn't love that thing.


and

Example 16.68. 

rode su'oda naku zo'u da prami de
For-every-Y, there-is-an-X, such-that-it-is-false-that : X loves Y.

For each thing there is someone who doesn't love it.


Investigation will show that, indeed, each transformation preserves the meanings of Example 16.63 and Example 16.64.

The quantifier no (meaning zero of) also involves a negation boundary. To transform a bridi containing a variable quantified with no , we must first expand it. Consider

Example 16.69. 

noda rode zo'u da prami de
There-is-no-X, for-every-Y, such-that X loves Y.

Nobody loves everything.


which is negated by:

Example 16.70. 

naku noda rode zo'u da prami de
It-is-false-that: there-is-no-X-that, for-every-Y : X loves Y.

It is false that there is nobody who loves everything.


We can simplify Example 16.70 by transforming the prenex. To move the negation phrase within the prenex, we must first expand the no quantifier. Thus for no x means the same thing as it is false that for some x , and the corresponding Lojban noda can be replaced by naku su'oda. Making this substitution, we get:

Example 16.71. 

naku naku su'oda
It-is-false-that it-is-false-that there-is-some-X-such-that
…rode zo'u da prami de
for-every-X : X loves Y

It is false that it is false that: for an X, for every Y: X loves Y.


Adjacent pairs of negation boundaries in the prenex can be dropped, so this means the same as:

Example 16.72. 

su'oda rode zo'u da prami de
There-is-an-X-such-that, for-every-Y : X loves Y.

At least one person loves everything.


which is clearly the desired contradiction of Example 16.69.

The interactions between quantifiers and negation mean that you cannot eliminate double negatives that are not adjacent. You must first move the negation phrases so that they are adjacent, inverting any quantifiers they cross, and then the double negative can be eliminated.

16.10. bridi negation and logical connectives

A complete discussion of logical connectives appears in Chapter 14. What is said here is intentionally quite incomplete and makes several oversimplifications.

A logical connective is a cmavo or compound cmavo. In this chapter, we will make use of the logical connectives and and or (where or really means and/or , either or both). The following simplified recipes explain how to make some logical connectives:

  • To logically connect two Lojban sumti with and , put them both in the bridi and separate them with the cmavo .e.

  • To logically connect two Lojban bridi with and , replace the regular separator cmavo .i with the compound cmavo .ije.

  • To logically connect two Lojban sumti with or , put them both in the bridi and separate them with the cmavo .a.

  • To logically connect two Lojban bridi with or , replace the regular separator cmavo .i with the compound cmavo .ija.

More complex logical connectives also exist; in particular, one may place na before .e or .a , or between .i and je or ja ; likewise, one may place nai at the end of a connective. Both na and nai have negative effects on the sumti or bridi being connected. Specifically, na negates the first or left-hand sumti or bridi, and nai negates the second or right-hand one.

Whenever a logical connective occurs in a sentence, that sentence can be expanded into two sentences by repeating the common terms and joining the sentences by a logical connective beginning with .i. Thus the following sentence:

Example 16.73. 

mi .e do klama ti
I and you come-to this-here

I and you come here.


can be expanded to:

Example 16.74. 

mi klama ti .ije do klama ti
I come-to this-here and you come-to this-here

I come here, and, you come here.


The same type of expansion can be performed for any logical connective, with any valid combination of na or nai attached. No change in meaning occurs under such a transformation.

Clearly, if we know what negation means in the expanded sentence forms, then we know what it means in all of the other forms. But what does negation mean between sentences?

The mystery is easily solved. A negation in a logical expression is identical to the corresponding bridi negation, with the negator placed at the beginning of the prenex. Thus:

Example 16.75. 

mi .enai do prami roda
I and-not you love everything

I, and not you, love everything.


expands to:

Example 16.76. 

mi prami roda .ijenai do prami roda
I love everything, and-not, you love everything.

and then into prenex form as:

Example 16.77. 

roda zo'u mi prami da .ije
For-each-thing : I love it, and
naku do prami da
it-is-false-that you love (the-same)-it.

For each thing: I love it, and it is false that you love (the same) it.


By the rules of predicate logic, the ro quantifier on da has scope over both sentences. That is, once you've picked a value for da for the first sentence, it stays the same for both sentences. (The da continues with the same fixed value until a new paragraph or a new prenex resets the meaning.)

Thus the following example has the indicated translation:

Example 16.78. 

su'oda zo'u mi prami da
For-at-least-one-thing : I love that-thing.
.ije naku zo'u do prami da
And it-is-false-that : you love that-(same)-thing.

There is something that I love that you don't.


If you remember only two rules for prenex manipulation of negations, you won't go wrong:

  • Within a prenex, whenever you move naku past a bound variable (da, de, di, etc.), you must invert the quantifier.

  • A na before the selbri is always transformed into a naku at the left-hand end of the prenex, and vice versa.

16.11. Using naku outside a prenex

Let us consider the English sentence

Example 16.79. 

Some children do not go to school.


We cannot express this directly with na ; the apparently obvious translation

Example 16.80. 

su'oda poi verba
At-least-one-X which-are child(ren)
na klama su'ode poi ckule
[false] go-to at-least-one-Y which-are school(s).

when converted to the external negation form produces:

Example 16.81. 

naku zo'u su'oda poi verba cu
It-is-false that some-which are children
klama su'ode poi ckule
go-to some-which are schools.

All children don't go to some school (not just some children).


Lojban provides a negation form which more closely emulates natural language negation. This involves putting naku before the selbri, instead of a na. naku is clearly a contradictory negation, given its parallel with prenex bridi negation. Using naku , Example 16.79 can be expressed as:

Example 16.82. 

su'oda poi verba ku'o naku klama su'ode poi ckule
Some that are-children don't go-to some that-are schools.

Some children don't go to a school.


Although it is not technically a sumti, naku can be used in most of the places where a sumti may appear. We'll see what this means in a moment.

When you use naku within a bridi, you are explicitly creating a negation boundary. As explained in Section 16.9 , when a prenex negation boundary expressed by naku moves past a quantifier, the quantifier has to be inverted. The same is true for naku in the bridi proper. We can move naku to any place in the sentence where a sumti can go, inverting any quantifiers that the negation boundary crosses. Thus, the following are equivalent to Example 16.82 (no good English translations exist):

Example 16.83. 

su'oda poi verba cu klama rode poi ckule ku'o naku

For some children, for every school, they don't go to it.


Example 16.84. 

su'oda poi verba cu klama naku su'ode poi ckule

Some children don't go to (some) school(s).


Example 16.85. 

naku roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule

It is false that all children go to some school(s).


In Example 16.83 , we moved the negation boundary rightward across the quantifier of de , forcing us to invert it. In Example 16.85 we moved the negation boundary across the quantifier of da , forcing us to invert it instead. Example 16.84 merely switched the selbri and the negation boundary, with no effect on the quantifiers.

The same rules apply if you rearrange the sentence so that the quantifier crosses an otherwise fixed negation. You can't just convert the selbri of Example 16.82 and rearrange the sumti to produce

Example 16.86. 

su'ode poi ckule ku'o naku se klama roda poi verba

Some schools aren't gone-to-by every child.


or rather, Example 16.86 means something completely different from Example 16.82. Conversion with se under naku negation is not symmetric; not all sumti are treated identically, and some sumti are not invariant under conversion. Thus, internal negation with naku is considered an advanced technique, used to achieve stylistic compatibility with natural languages.

It isn't always easy to see which quantifiers have to be inverted in a sentence. Example 16.82 is identical in meaning to:

Example 16.87. 

su'o verba naku klama su'o ckule
Some children don't go-to some school.

but in Example 16.87 , the bound variables da and de have been hidden.

It is trivial to export an internal bridi negation expressed with na to the prenex, as we saw in Section 16.9 ; you just move it to the left end of the prenex. In comparison, it is non-trivial to export a naku to the prenex because of the quantifiers. The rules for exporting naku require that you export all of the quantified variables (implicit or explicit) along with naku , and you must export them from left to right, in the same order that they appear in the sentence. Thus Example 16.82 goes into prenex form as:

Example 16.88. 

su'oda poi verba ku'o naku
For-some-X which is-a-child, it-is-not-the-case-that
su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de
there-is-a-Y which is-a-school such-that: X goes to Y.

We can now move the naku to the left end of the prenex, getting a contradictory negation that can be expressed with na :

Example 16.89. 

naku roda poi verba ku'o
It-is-not-the-case-that for-all-X's which-are children,
su'ode poi ckule zo'u da klama de
there-is-a-Y which-is a-school such-that: X goes-to Y.

from which we can restore the quantified variables to the sentence, giving:

Example 16.90. 

naku zo'u roda poi verba cu klama su'ode poi ckule

It is not the case that all children go to some school.


or more briefly

Example 16.91. 

ro verba cu na klama su'o ckule
All children [false] go-to some school(s).

As noted in Section 16.5 , a sentence with two different quantified variables, such as Example 16.91 , cannot always be converted with se without first exporting the quantified variables. When the variables have been exported, the sentence proper can be converted, but the quantifier order in the prenex must remain unchanged:

Example 16.92. 

roda poi verba ku'o su'ode
for-all-X's that-are children , there-is-a-Y
poi ckule zo'u de na se klama da
that is-a-school such-that: Y it-is-not-the-case-that: is-gone-to-by X.

While you can't freely convert with se when you have two quantified variables in a sentence, you can still freely move sumti to either side of the selbri, as long as the order isn't changed. If you use na negation in such a sentence, nothing special need be done. If you use naku negation, then quantified variables that cross the negation boundary must be inverted.

Clearly, if all of Lojban negation was built on naku negation instead of na negation, logical manipulation in Lojban would be as difficult as in natural languages. In Section 16.12 , for example, we'll discuss DeMorgan's Law, which must be used whenever a sumti with a logical connection is moved across a negation boundary.

Since naku has the grammar of a sumti, it can be placed almost anywhere a sumti can go, including be and bei clauses; it isn't clear what these mean, and we recommend avoiding such constructs.

You can put multiple naku compounds in a sentence, each forming a separate negation boundary. Two adjacent naku compounds in a bridi are a double negative and cancel out:

Example 16.93. 

mi naku naku le zarci cu klama


Other expressions using two naku compounds may or may not cancel out. If there is no quantified variable between them, then the naku compounds cancel.

Negation with internal naku is clumsy and non-intuitive for logical manipulations, but then, so are the natural language features it is emulating.

16.12. Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law

DeMorgan's Law states that when a logical connective between terms falls within a negation, then expanding the negation requires a change in the connective. Thus (where p and q stand for terms or sentences) not (p or q) is identical to not p and not q , and not (p and q) is identical to not p or not q. The corresponding changes for the other two basic Lojban connectives are: not (p equivalent to q) is identical to not p exclusive-or not q , and not (p whether-or-not q) is identical to both not p whether-or-not q and not p whether-or-not not q. In any Lojban sentence having one of the basic connectives, you can substitute in either direction from these identities. (These basic connectives are explained in Chapter 14.)

The effects of DeMorgan's Law on the logical connectives made by modifying the basic connectives with nai , na and se can be derived directly from these rules; modify the basic connective for DeMorgan's Law by substituting from the above identities, and then, apply each nai , na and se modifier of the original connectives. Cancel any double negatives that result.

When do we apply DeMorgan's Law? Whenever we wish to distribute a negation over a logical connective; and, for internal naku negation, whenever a logical connective moves in to, or out of, the scope of a negation – when it crosses a negation boundary.

Let us apply DeMorgan's Law to some sample sentences. These sentences make use of forethought logical connectives, which are explained in Section 14.5. It suffices to know that ga and gi , used before each of a pair of sumti or bridi, mean either and or respectively, and that ge and gi used similarly mean both and and. Furthermore, ga , ge , and gi can all be suffixed with nai to negate the bridi or sumti that follows.

We have defined na and naku zo'u as, respectively, internal and external bridi negation. These forms being identical, the negation boundary always remains at the left end of the prenex. Thus, exporting or importing negation between external and internal bridi negation forms never requires DeMorgan's Law to be applied. Example 16.94 and Example 16.95 are exactly equivalent:

Example 16.94. 

la .djan. na klama ga
that-named John [false] goes-to either
la .paris. gi la .rom.
that-named Paris or that-named Rome.

Example 16.95. 

naku zo'u la .djan. klama
It-is-false that: that-named John goes-to
ga la .paris. gi la .rom.
either that-named Paris or that-named Rome.

It is not an acceptable logical manipulation to move a negator from the bridi level to one or more sumti. However, Example 16.94 and related examples are not sumti negations, but rather expand to form two logically connected sentences. In such a situation, DeMorgan's Law must be applied. For instance, Example 16.95 expands to:

Example 16.96. 

ge la .djan. la .paris. na klama
[It-is-true-that] both that-named John, to-that-named Paris, [false] goes,
gi la .djan. la .rom. na klama
and that-named John, to-that-named Rome, [false] goes.

The ga and gi , meaning either-or , have become ge and gi , meaning both-and , as a consequence of moving the negators into the individual bridi.

Here is another example of DeMorgan's Law in action, involving bridi-tail logical connection (explained in Section 14.9):

Example 16.97. 

la .djein. le zarci na ge dzukla gi bajrykla
that-named Jane to-the market [false] both walks and runs.

Example 16.98. 

la .djein. le zarci ganai dzukla ginai bajrykla
that-named Jane to-the market either-([false] walks) or-([false] runs.
that-named Jane to-the market if walks then-([false] runs).

(Placing le zarci before the selbri makes sure that it is properly associated with both parts of the logical connection. Otherwise, it is easy to erroneously leave it off one of the two sentences.)

It is wise, before freely doing transformations such as the one from Example 16.97 to Example 16.98 , that you become familiar with expanding logical connectives to separate sentences, transforming the sentences, and then recondensing. Thus, you would prove the transformation correct by the following steps. By moving its na to the beginning of the prenex as a naku , Example 16.97 becomes:

Example 16.99. 

naku zo'u la .djein. le zarci
It-is-false-that : that-named Jane to-the market
ge dzukla gi bajrykla
(both walks and runs).

And by dividing the bridi with logically connected selbri into two bridi,

Example 16.100. 

naku zo'u ge la .djein. le zarci cu dzukla
It-is-false that: both (that-named Jane to-the market walks)
gi la .djein. le zarci cu bajrykla
and (that-named Jane to-the market runs).

is the result.

At this expanded level, we apply DeMorgan's Law to distribute the negation in the prenex across both sentences, to get

Example 16.101. 

ga la .djein. le zarci na dzukla
Either that-named Jane to-the market [false] walks,
gi la .djein. le zarci na bajrykla
or that-named Jane to-the market [false] runs.

which is the same as

Example 16.102. 

ganai la .djein. le zarci cu dzukla
If that-named Jane to-the market walks,
ginai la .djein. le zarci cu bajrykla
then-([false] that-named Jane to-the market runs).

If Jane walks to the market, then she doesn't run.


which then condenses down to Example 16.98.

DeMorgan's Law must also be applied to internal naku negations:

Example 16.103. 

ga la .paris. gi la .rom.
(Either that-named Paris or that-named Rome)
naku se klama la .djan.
is-not gone-to-by that-named John.

Example 16.104. 

la .djan. naku klama ge
that-named John doesn't go-to both
la .paris. gi la .rom.
that-named Paris and that-named Rome.

That Example 16.103 and Example 16.104 mean the same should become evident by studying the English. It is a good exercise to work through the Lojban and prove that they are the same.

16.13. selbri variables

In addition to the variables da , de , and di that we have seen so far, which function as sumti and belong to selma'o KOhA, there are three corresponding variables bu'a , bu'e , and bu'i which function as selbri and belong to selma'o GOhA. These new variables allow existential or universal claims which are about the relationships between objects rather than the objects themselves. We will start with the usual silly examples; the literal translation will represent bu'a , bu'e and bu'i with F, G, and H respectively.

Example 16.105. 

su'o bu'a zo'u la .djim.
For-at-least-one relationship-F : that-named Jim
bu'a la .djan.
stands-in-relationship-F to-that-named John.

There's some relationship between Jim and John.


The translations of Example 16.105 show how unidiomatic selbri variables are in English; Lojban sentences like Example 16.105 need to be totally reworded in English. Furthermore, when a selbri variable appears in the prenex, it is necessary to precede it with a quantifier such as su'o ; it is ungrammatical to just say bu'a zo'u. This rule is necessary because only sumti can appear in the prenex, and su'o bu'a is technically a sumti – in fact, it is an indefinite description like re nanmu , since bu'a is grammatically equivalent to a brivla like nanmu. However, indefinite descriptions involving the bu'a-series cannot be imported from the prenex.

When the prenex is omitted, the preceding number has to be omitted too:

Example 16.106. 

la .djim. bu'a la .djan.
that-named Jim stands-in-at-least-one-relationship to-that-named John.

As a result, if the number before the variable is anything but su'o , the prenex is required:

Example 16.107. 

ro bu'a zo'u la .djim.
For-every relationship-F : that-named Jim
bu'a la .djan.
stands-in-relationship-F to-that-named John.

Every relationship exists between Jim and John.


Example 16.105 and Example 16.106 are almost certainly true: Jim and John might be brothers, or might live in the same city, or at least have the property of being jointly human. Example 16.107 is palpably false, however; if Jim and John were related by every possible relationship, then they would have to be both brothers and father-and-son, which is impossible.

16.14. A few notes on variables

A variable may have a quantifier placed in front of it even though it has already been quantified explicitly or implicitly by a previous appearance, as in:

Example 16.108. 

ci da poi mlatu cu blabi .ije re da cu barda
Three Xs which-are cats are-white, and two Xs are-big.

What does Example 16.108 mean? The appearance of ci da quantifies da as referring to three things, which are restricted by the relative clause to be cats. When re da appears later, it refers to two of those three things – there is no saying which ones. Further uses of da alone, if there were any, would refer once more to the three cats, so the requantification of da is purely local.

In general, the scope of a prenex that precedes a sentence extends to following sentences that are joined by ijeks (explained in Section 14.4) such as the .ije in Example 16.108. Theoretically, a bare .i terminates the scope of the prenex. Informally, however, variables may persist for a while even after an .i , as if it were an .ije. Prenexes that precede embedded bridi such as relative clauses and abstractions extend only to the end of the clause, as explained in Section 16.8. A prenex preceding tu'etu'u long-scope brackets persists until the tu'u , which may be many sentences or even paragraphs later.

If the variables da , de , and di (or the selbri variables bu'a , bu'e , and bu'i) are insufficient in number for handling a particular problem, the Lojban approach is to add a subscript to any of them. Each possible different combination of a subscript and a variable cmavo counts as a distinct variable in Lojban. Subscripts are explained in full in Section 19.6 , but in general consist of the cmavo xi (of selma'o XI) followed by a number, one or more lerfu words forming a single string, or a general mathematical expression enclosed in parentheses.

A quantifier can be prefixed to a variable that has already been bound either in a prenex or earlier in the bridi, thus:

Example 16.109. 

ci da poi prenu cu se ralju pa da
Three Xs which are-persons are-led-by one-of X

Three people are led by one of them.


The pa da in Example 16.109 does not specify the number of things to which da refers, as the preceding ci da does. Instead, it selects one of them for use in this sumti only. The number of referents of da remains three, but a single one (there is no way of knowing which one) is selected to be the leader.

16.15. Conclusion

This chapter is incomplete. There are many more aspects of logic that I neither fully understand nor feel competent to explain, neither in abstract nor in their Lojban realization. Lojban was designed to be a language that makes predicate logic speakable, and achieving that goal completely will need to wait for someone who understands both logic and Lojban better than I do. I can only hope to have pointed out the areas that are well-understood (and by implication, those that are not).

Chapter 17. As easy as A-B-C? The Lojban letteral system and its uses

The picture for chapter 17

17.1. What's a letteral, anyway?

James Cooke Brown, the founder of the Loglan Project, coined the word letteral (by analogy with numeral) to mean a letter of the alphabet, such as f or z. A typical example of its use might be

Example 17.1. 

There are fourteen occurrences of the letteral e in this sentence.


(Don't forget the one within quotation marks.) Using the word letteral avoids confusion with letter , the kind you write to someone. Not surprisingly, there is a Lojban gismu for letteral , namely lerfu , and this word will be used in the rest of this chapter.

Lojban uses the Latin alphabet, just as English does, right? Then why is there a need for a chapter like this? After all, everyone who can read it already knows the alphabet. The answer is twofold:

First, in English there are a set of words that correspond to and represent the English lerfu. These words are rarely written down in English and have no standard spellings, but if you pronounce the English alphabet to yourself you will hear them: ay, bee, cee, dee ... . They are used in spelling out words and in pronouncing most acronyms. The Lojban equivalents of these words are standardized and must be documented somehow.

Second, English has names only for the lerfu used in writing English. (There are also English names for Greek and Hebrew lerfu: English-speakers usually refer to the Greek lerfu conventionally spelled phi as fye , whereas fee would more nearly represent the name used by Greek-speakers. Still, not all English-speakers know these English names.) Lojban, in order to be culturally neutral, needs a more comprehensive system that can handle, at least potentially, all of the world's alphabets and other writing systems.

Letterals have several uses in Lojban: in forming acronyms and abbreviations, as mathematical symbols, and as pro-sumti – the equivalent of English pronouns.

In earlier writings about Lojban, there has been a tendency to use the word lerfu for both the letterals themselves and for the Lojban words which represent them. In this chapter, that tendency will be ruthlessly suppressed, and the term lerfu word will invariably be used for the latter. The Lojban equivalent would be lerfu valsi or lervla.

17.2. A to Z in Lojban, plus one

The first requirement of a system of lerfu words for any language is that they must represent the lerfu used to write the language. The lerfu words for English are a motley crew: the relationship between doubleyou and w is strictly historical in nature; aitch represents h but has no clear relationship to it at all; and z has two distinct lerfu words, zee and zed , depending on the dialect of English in question.

All of Lojban's basic lerfu words are made by one of three rules:

  • to get a lerfu word for a vowel, add bu ;

  • to get a lerfu word for a consonant, add y ;

  • the lerfu word for ' is .y'y..

Therefore, the following table represents the basic Lojban alphabet:

There are several things to note about this table. The consonant lerfu words are a single syllable, whereas the vowel and ' lerfu words are two syllables and must be preceded by pause (since they all begin with a vowel). Another fact, not evident from the table but important nonetheless, is that by. and its like are single cmavo of selma'o BY, as is .y'y.. The vowel lerfu words, on the other hand, are compound cmavo, made from a single vowel cmavo plus the cmavo bu (which belongs to its own selma'o, BU). All of the vowel cmavo have other meanings in Lojban (logical connectives, sentence separator, hesitation noise), but those meanings are irrelevant when bu follows.

Here are some illustrations of common Lojban words spelled out using the alphabet above:

Example 17.2. 

ty. .abu ny. ry. .ubu
t a n r u

Example 17.3. 

ky. .obu .y'y. .abu
k o ' a

Spelling out words is less useful in Lojban than in English, for two reasons: Lojban spelling is phonemic, so there can be no real dispute about how a word is spelled; and the Lojban lerfu words sound more alike than the English ones do, since they are made up systematically. The English words fail and vale sound similar, but just hearing the first lerfu word of either, namely eff or vee , is enough to discriminate easily between them – and even if the first lerfu word were somehow confused, neither vail nor fale is a word of ordinary English, so the rest of the spelling determines which word is meant. Still, the capability of spelling out words does exist in Lojban.

Note that the lerfu words ending in y were written (in Example 17.2 and Example 17.3) with pauses after them. It is not strictly necessary to pause after such lerfu words, but failure to do so can in some cases lead to ambiguities:

Example 17.4. 

mi cy. claxu
I lerfu-c without

I am without (whatever is referred to by) the letter c.


without a pause after cy. would be interpreted as:

Example 17.5. 

micyclaxu
(Observative:)-doctor-without

Something unspecified is without a doctor.


A safe guideline is to pause after any cmavo ending in y unless the next word is also a cmavo ending in y. The safest and easiest guideline is to pause after all of them.

17.3. Upper and lower cases

Lojban doesn't use lower-case (small) letters and upper-case (capital) letters in the same way that English does; sentences do not begin with an upper-case letter, nor do names. However, upper-case letters are used in Lojban to mark irregular stress within cmevla, thus:

Example 17.6. 

.iVAN.

the name Ivan in Russian/Slavic pronunciation.


It would require far too many cmavo to assign one for each upper-case and one for each lower-case lerfu, so instead we have two special cmavo ga'e and to'a representing upper case and lower case respectively. They belong to the same selma'o as the basic lerfu words, namely BY, and they may be freely interspersed with them.

The effect of ga'e is to change the interpretation of all lerfu words following it to be the upper-case version of the lerfu. An occurrence of to'a causes the interpretation to revert to lower case. Thus, ga'e .abu means not a but A , and Ivan's name may be spelled out thus:

Example 17.7. 

.ibu ga'e vy. .abu ny. to'a
i [upper] V A N [lower]

The cmavo and compound cmavo of this type will be called shift words.

How long does a shift word last? Theoretically, until the next shift word that contradicts it or until the end of text. In practice, it is common to presume that a shift word is only in effect until the next word other than a lerfu word is found.

It is often convenient to shift just a single letter to upper case. The cmavo tau , of selma'o LAU, is useful for the purpose. A LAU cmavo must always be immediately followed by a BY cmavo or its equivalent: the combination is grammatically equivalent to a single BY. (See Section 17.14 for details.)

A likely use of tau is in the internationally standardized symbols for the chemical elements. Each element is represented using either a single upper-case lerfu or one upper-case lerfu followed by one lower-case lerfu:

Example 17.8. 

tau sy.
[single-shift] S

S (chemical symbol for sulfur)


Example 17.9. 

tau sy. .ibu
[single-shift] S i

Si (chemical symbol for silicon)


If a shift to upper-case is in effect when tau appears, it shifts the next lerfu word only to lower case, reversing its usual effect.

17.4. The universal bu

So far we have seen bu only as a suffix to vowel cmavo to produce vowel lerfu words. Originally, this was the only use of bu. In developing the lerfu word system, however, it proved to be useful to allow bu to be attached to any word whatsoever, in order to allow arbitrary extensions of the basic lerfu word set.

Formally, bu may be attached to any single Lojban word. Compound cmavo do not count as words for this purpose. The special cmavo ba'e , za'e , zei , zo , zoi , la'o , lo'u , si , sa , su , and fa'o may not have bu attached, because they are interpreted before bu detection is done; in particular,

Example 17.10. 

zo bu
the-word bu

the word bu


is needed when discussing bu in Lojban. It is also illegal to attach bu to itself, but more than one bu may be attached to a word; thus .abubu is legal, if ugly. (Its meaning is not defined, but it is presumably different from .abu.) It does not matter if the word is a cmavo, a cmevla, or a brivla. All such words suffixed by bu are treated grammatically as if they were cmavo belonging to selma'o BY.

The ability to attach bu to words has been used primarily to make names for various logograms and other unusual characters. For example, the Lojban name for the happy face is me'o .uibu , based on the attitudinal .ui that means happiness (the cmavo me'o is used here to represent the very character as opposed to a lerfu word; this is explained in Section 17.9). Likewise, the smiley face , written :-) and used on computer networks to indicate humor, is called me'o .u'ibu. The existence of these names does not mean that you should insert me'o .uibu into running Lojban text to indicate that you are happy, or me'o .u'ibu when something is funny; instead, use the appropriate attitudinal directly.

Likewise, me'o joibu represents the ampersand character, & , based on the cmavo joi meaning mixed “and”. Many more such lerfu words will probably be invented in future.

The . and , characters used in Lojbanic writing to represent pause and syllable break respectively have been assigned the lerfu words me'o denpa bu (literally, pause bu) and me'o slaka bu (literally, syllable bu). The written space is mandatory here, because denpa and slaka are normal gismu with normal stress: denpabu would be a fu'ivla (word borrowed from another language into Lojban) stressed denPAbu. No pause is required between denpa (or slaka) and bu , though.

17.5. Alien alphabets

As stated in Section 17.1 , Lojban's goal of cultural neutrality demands a standard set of lerfu words for the lerfu of as many other writing systems as possible. When we meet these lerfu in written text (particularly, though not exclusively, mathematical text), we need a standard Lojbanic way to pronounce them.

There are certainly hundreds of alphabets and other writing systems in use around the world, and it is probably an unachievable goal to create a single system which can express all of them, but if perfection is not demanded, a usable system can be created from the raw material which Lojban provides.

One possibility would be to use the lerfu word associated with the language itself, Lojbanized and with bu added. Indeed, an isolated Greek alpha in running Lojban text is probably most easily handled by calling it .alfas. bu. Here the Greek lerfu word has been made into a Lojbanized name by adding s and then into a Lojban lerfu word by adding bu. Note that the pause after .alfas. is still needed.

Likewise, the easiest way to handle the Latin letters h , q , and w that are not used in Lojban is by a consonant lerfu word with bu attached. The following assignments have been made:

.y'y.bu

h

ky.bu

q

vy.bu

w

As an example, the English word quack would be spelled in Lojban thus:

Example 17.11. 

ky.bu .ubu .abu cy. ky.
q u a c k

Note that the fact that the letter c in this word has nothing to do with the sound of the Lojban letter c is irrelevant; we are spelling an English word and English rules control the choice of letters, but we are speaking Lojban and Lojban rules control the pronunciations of those letters.

A few more possibilities for Latin-alphabet letters used in languages other than English:

ty.bu

þ (thorn)

dy.bu

ð (edh)

However, this system is not ideal for all purposes. For one thing, it is verbose. The native lerfu words are often quite long, and with bu added they become even longer: the worst-case Greek lerfu word would be .Omikron. bu , with four syllables and two mandatory pauses. In addition, alphabets that are used by many languages have separate sets of lerfu words for each language, and which set is Lojban to choose?

The alternative plan, therefore, is to use a shift word similar to those introduced in Section 17.3. After the appearance of such a shift word, the regular lerfu words are re-interpreted to represent the lerfu of the alphabet now in use. After a shift to the Greek alphabet, for example, the lerfu word ty. would represent not Latin t but Greek tau. Why tau ? Because it is, in some sense, the closest counterpart of t within the Greek lerfu system. In principle it would be all right to map ty. to phi or even omega , but such an arbitrary relationship would be extremely hard to remember.

Where no obvious closest counterpart exists, some more or less arbitrary choice must be made. Some alien lerfu may simply not have any shifted equivalent, forcing the speaker to fall back on a bu form. Since a bu form may mean different things in different alphabets, it is safest to employ a shift word even when bu forms are in use.

Shifts for several alphabets have been assigned cmavo of selma'o BY:

lo'a

Latin/Roman/Lojban alphabet

ge'o

Greek alphabet

je'o

Hebrew alphabet

jo'o

Arabic alphabet

ru'o

Cyrillic alphabet

The cmavo zai (of selma'o LAU) is used to create shift words to still other alphabets. The BY word which must follow any LAU cmavo would typically be a name representing the alphabet with bu suffixed:

Example 17.12. 

zai .devanagar. bu

Devanagari (Hindi) alphabet


Example 17.13. 

zai .katakan. bu

Japanese katakana syllabary


Example 17.14. 

zai .xiragan. bu

Japanese hiragana syllabary


Unlike the cmavo above, these shift words have not been standardized and probably will not be until someone actually has a need for them. (Note the . characters marking leading and following pauses.)

In addition, there may be multiple visible representations within a single alphabet for a given letter: roman vs. italics, handwriting vs. print, Bodoni vs. Helvetica. These traditional font and face distinctions are also represented by shift words, indicated with the cmavo ce'a (of selma'o LAU) and a following BY word:

Example 17.15. 

ce'a .xelveticas. bu

Helvetica font


Example 17.16. 

ce'a .xancisk. bu

handwriting


Example 17.17. 

ce'a .pavrel. bu

12-point font size


The cmavo na'a (of selma'o BY) is a universal shift-word cancel: it returns the interpretation of lerfu words to the default of lower-case Lojban with no specific font. It is more general than lo'a , which changes the alphabet only, potentially leaving font and case shifts in place.

Several sections at the end of this chapter contain tables of proposed lerfu word assignments for various languages.

17.6. Accent marks and compound lerfu words

Many languages that make use of the Latin alphabet add special marks to some of the lerfu they use. French, for example, uses three accent marks above vowels, called (in English) acute , grave , and circumflex. Likewise, German uses a mark called umlaut ; a mark which looks the same is also used in French, but with a different name and meaning.

These marks may be considered lerfu, and each has a corresponding lerfu word in Lojban. So far, no problem. But the marks appear over lerfu, whereas the words must be spoken (or written) either before or after the lerfu word representing the basic lerfu. Typewriters (for mechanical reasons) and the computer programs that emulate them usually require their users to type the accent mark before the basic lerfu, whereas in speech the accent mark is often pronounced afterwards (for example, in German a umlaut is preferred to umlaut a).

Lojban cannot settle this question by fiat. Either it must be left up to default interpretation depending on the language in question, or the lerfu-word compounding cmavo tei (of selma'o TEI) and foi (of selma'o FOI) must be used. These cmavo are always used in pairs; any number of lerfu words may appear between them, and the whole is treated as a single compound lerfu word. The French word été , with acute accent marks on both e lerfu, could be spelled as:

Example 17.18. 

tei .ebu .akut.bu foi ty. tei .akut.bu .ebu foi
( e acute ) t ( acute e )

and it does not matter whether .akut. bu appears before or after .ebu ; the teifoi grouping guarantees that the acute accent is associated with the correct lerfu. Of course, the level of precision represented by Example 17.18 would rarely be required: it might be needed by a Lojban-speaker when spelling out a French word for exact transcription by another Lojban-speaker who did not know French.

This system breaks down in languages which use more than one accent mark on a single lerfu; some other convention must be used for showing which accent marks are written where in that case. The obvious convention is to represent the mark nearest the basic lerfu by the lerfu word closest to the word representing the basic lerfu. Any remaining ambiguities must be resolved by further conventions not yet established.

Some languages, like Swedish and Finnish, consider certain accented lerfu to be completely distinct from their unaccented equivalents, but Lojban does not make a formal distinction, since the printed characters look the same whether they are reckoned as separate letters or not. In addition, some languages consider certain 2-letter combinations (like ll and ch in Spanish) to be letters; this may be represented by enclosing the combination in teifoi.

In addition, when discussing a specific language, it is permissible to make up new lerfu words, as long as they are either explained locally or well understood from context: thus Spanish ll or Croatian lj could be called .ibu , but that usage would not necessarily be universally understood.

Section 17.19 contains a table of proposed lerfu words for some common accent marks.

17.7. Punctuation marks

Lojban does not have punctuation marks as such: the denpa bu and the slaka bu are really a part of the alphabet. Other languages, however, use punctuation marks extensively. As yet, Lojban does not have any words for these punctuation marks, but a mechanism exists for devising them: the cmavo lau of selma'o LAU. lau must always be followed by a BY word; the interpretation of the BY word is changed from a lerfu to a punctuation mark. Typically, this BY word would be a cmevla or brivla with a bu suffix.

Why is lau necessary at all? Why not just use a bu -marked word and announce that it is always to be interpreted as a punctuation mark? Primarily to avoid ambiguity. The bu mechanism is extremely open-ended, and it is easy for Lojban users to make up bu words without bothering to explain what they mean. Using the lau cmavo flags at least the most important of such nonce lerfu words as having a special function: punctuation. (Exactly the same argument applies to the use of zai to signal an alphabet shift or ce'a to signal a font shift.)

Since different alphabets require different punctuation marks, the interpretation of a lau -marked lerfu word is affected by the current alphabet shift and the current font shift.

17.8. What about Chinese characters?

Chinese characters ( hànzi in Chinese, kanji in Japanese) represent an entirely different approach to writing from alphabets or syllabaries. (A syllabary, such as Japanese hiragana or Amharic writing, has one lerfu for each syllable of the spoken language.) Very roughly, Chinese characters represent single elements of meaning; also very roughly, they represent single syllables of spoken Chinese. There is in principle no limit to the number of Chinese characters that can exist, and many thousands are in regular use.

It is hopeless for Lojban, with its limited lerfu and shift words, to create an alphabet which will match this diversity. However, there are various possible ways around the problem.

First, both Chinese and Japanese have standard Latin-alphabet representations, known as pinyin for Chinese and romaji for Japanese, and these can be used. Thus, the word han 4 zi 4 ( hànzi) is conventionally written with two characters, but it may be spelled out as:

Example 17.19. 

.y'y.bu .abu ny. vo zy. .ibu vo
h a n 4 z i 4

The cmavo vo is the Lojban digit 4. It is grammatical to intersperse digits (of selma'o PA) into a string of lerfu words; as long as the first cmavo is a lerfu word, the whole will be interpreted as a string of lerfu words. In Chinese, the digits can be used to represent tones. Pinyin is more usually written using accent marks, the mechanism for which was explained in Section 17.6.

The Japanese company named Mitsubishi in English is spelled the same way in romaji, and could be spelled out in Lojban thus:

Example 17.20. 

my. .ibu ty. sy. .ubu by. .ibu sy. .y'y.bu .ibu
m i t s u b i s h i

Alternatively, a really ambitious Lojbanist could assign lerfu words to the individual strokes used to write Chinese characters (there are about seven or eight of them if you are a flexible human being, or about 40 if you are a rigid computer program), and then represent each character with a tei , the stroke lerfu words in the order of writing (which is standardized for each character), and a foi. No one has as yet attempted this project.

17.9. lerfu words as pro-sumti

So far, lerfu words have only appeared in Lojban text when spelling out words. There are several other grammatical uses of lerfu words within Lojban. In each case, a single lerfu word or more than one may be used. Therefore, the term lerfu string is introduced: it is short for sequence of one or more lerfu words.

A lerfu string may be used as a pro-sumti (a sumti which refers to some previous sumti), just like the pro-sumti ko'a , ko'e , and so on:

Example 17.21. 

.abu prami by.

A loves B


In Example 17.21 , .abu and by. represent specific sumti, but which sumti they represent must be inferred from context.

Alternatively, lerfu strings may be assigned by goi , the regular pro-sumti assignment cmavo:

Example 17.22. 

le gerku goi gy. cu xekri .i gy. klama le zdani

The dog, or G, is black. G goes to the house.


There is a special rule that sometimes makes lerfu strings more advantageous than the regular pro-sumti cmavo. If no assignment can be found for a lerfu string (especially a single lerfu word), it can be assumed to refer to the most recent sumti whose name or description begins in Lojban with that lerfu. So Example 17.22 can be rephrased:

Example 17.23. 

le gerku cu xekri. .i gy. klama le zdani

The dog is black. G goes to the house.


(A less literal English translation would use D for dog instead.)

Here is an example using two names and longer lerfu strings:

Example 17.24. 

la .stivn. .mark. .djonz. cu merko
that-named Steven Mark Jones is-American.
.i la .aleksandr. .pavlovitc. .kuznietsof. cu rusko
that-named Alexander Pavlovich Kuznetsov is-Russian.
.i symydy. tavla .abupyky. bau la .lojban.
SMD talks-to APK in that-named Lojban.

Perhaps Alexander's name should be given as ru'o.abupyky instead.

What about

Example 17.25. 

.abu dunda by. cy.
A gives B C

Does this mean that A gives B to C? No. by. cy. is a single lerfu string, although written as two words, and represents a single pro-sumti. The true interpretation is that A gives BC to someone unspecified. To solve this problem, we need to introduce the elidable terminator boi (of selma'o BOI). This cmavo is used to terminate lerfu strings and also strings of numerals; it is required when two of these appear in a row, as here. (The other reason to use boi is to attach a free modifier – subscript, parenthesis, or what have you – to a lerfu string.) The correct version is:

Example 17.26. 

.abu [boi] dunda by. boi cy. [boi]

A gives B to C


where the two occurrences of boi in brackets are elidable, but the remaining occurrence is not. Likewise:

Example 17.27. 

xy. boi ro [boi] prenu cu prami
X   all   persons   loves.

X loves everybody.


requires the first boi to separate the lerfu string xy. from the digit string ro.

17.10. References to lerfu

The rules of Section 17.9 make it impossible to use unmarked lerfu words to refer to lerfu themselves. In the sentence:

Example 17.28. 

.abu cu lerfu
A   is-a-letteral.

the hearer would try to find what previous sumti .abu refers to. The solution to this problem makes use of the cmavo me'o of selma'o LI, which makes a lerfu string into a sumti representing that very string of lerfu. This use of me'o is a special case of its mathematical use, which is to introduce a mathematical expression used literally rather than for its value.

Example 17.29. 

me'o .abu cu lerfu

The-expression a is-a-letteral.


Now we can translate Example 17.1 into Lojban:

Example 17.30. 

dei vasru vo lerfu po'u me'o .ebu
this-sentence contains four letterals which-are the-expression e

This sentence contains four e s.


Since the Lojban sentence has only four e lerfu rather than fourteen, the translation is not a literal one – but Example 17.30 is a Lojban truth just as Example 17.1 is an English truth. Coincidentally, the colloquial English translation of Example 17.30 is also true!

The reader might be tempted to use quotation with luli'u instead of me'o , producing:

Example 17.31. 

lu .abu li'u cu lerfu
[quote] .abu [unquote]   is-a-letteral.

(The single-word quote zo cannot be used, because .abu is a compound cmavo.) But Example 17.31 is false, because it says:

Example 17.32. 

The word .abu is a letteral


which is not the case; rather, the thing symbolized by the word .abu is a letteral. In Lojban, that would be:

Example 17.33. 

la'e lu .abu li'u cu lerfu
The-referent-of [quote] .abu [unquote]   is-a-letteral.

which is correct.

17.11. Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

This chapter is not about Lojban mathematics, which is explained in Chapter 18 , so the mathematical uses of lerfu strings will be listed and exemplified but not explained.

  • A lerfu string as mathematical variable:

Example 17.34. 

li .abu du li by. su'i cy.
the-number a equals the-number b plus c

a = b + c


  • A lerfu string as function name (preceded by ma'o of selma'o MAhO):

Example 17.35. 

li .ybu du li ma'o fy. boi xy.
the-number y equals the-number the-function f of x
y = f(x)

Note the boi here to separate the lerfu strings fy. and xy..

  • A lerfu string as selbri (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MOI):

Example 17.36. 

le vi ratcu cu ny.moi le'i mi ratcu
the here rat is-nth-of the-set-of my rats

This rat is my Nth rat.


  • A lerfu string as utterance ordinal (followed by a cmavo of selma'o MAI):

Example 17.37. 

ny.mai

Nthly


  • A lerfu string as subscript (preceded by xi of selma'o XI):

Example 17.38. 

xy. xi ky.
x sub k

xₖ


  • A lerfu string as quantifier (enclosed in veive'o parentheses):

Example 17.39. 

vei ny. [ve'o] lo prenu
( n ) persons

The parentheses are required because ny. lo prenu would be two separate sumti, ny. and lo prenu. In general, any mathematical expression other than a simple number must be in parentheses when used as a quantifier; the right parenthesis mark, the cmavo ve'o , can usually be elided.

All the examples above have exhibited single lerfu words rather than lerfu strings, in accordance with the conventions of ordinary mathematics. A longer lerfu string would still be treated as a single variable or function name: in Lojban, .abu by. cy. is not the multiplication a × b × c but is the variable abc. (Of course, a local convention could be employed that made the value of a variable like abc , with a multi-lerfu-word name, equal to the values of the variables a , b , and c multiplied together.)

There is a special rule about shift words in mathematical text: shifts within mathematical expressions do not affect lerfu words appearing outside mathematical expressions, and vice versa.

17.12. Acronyms

An acronym is a name constructed of lerfu. English examples are DNA , NATO , CIA. In English, some of these are spelled out (like DNA and CIA) and others are pronounced more or less as if they were ordinary English words (like NATO). Some acronyms fluctuate between the two pronunciations: SQL may be ess cue ell or sequel.

In Lojban, a name is often represented by one cmevla (a word that ends in a consonant and is surrounded by pauses). The easiest way to Lojbanize acronym names is to glue the lerfu words together, using ' wherever two vowels would come together (pauses are illegal in cmevla) and adding a final consonant:

Example 17.40. 

la .dyny'abub. .i la .ny'abuty'obub. .i la .cy'ibu'abub.

DNA. NATO. CIA.

… .i la .sykybulyl. .i la .ibubymym. .i la .ny'ybucyc.

… SQL. IBM. NYC.


There is no fixed convention for assigning the final consonant. In Example 17.40 , the last consonant of the lerfu string has been replicated into final position.

Some compression can be done by leaving out bu after vowel lerfu words (except for .ybu , wherein the bu cannot be omitted without ambiguity). Compression is moderately important because it's hard to say long cmevla without introducing an involuntary (and illegal) pause:

Example 17.41. 

la .dyny'am. .i la .ny'aty'om. .i la .cy'i'am.

DNA. NATO. CIA.

… .i la .sykybulym. .i la .ibymym. .i la .ny'ybucym.

… SQL. IBM. NYC.


In Example 17.41 , the final consonant m stands for merko , indicating the source culture of these acronyms.

Another approach, which some may find easier to say and which is compatible with older versions of the language that did not have a ' character, is to use the consonant z instead of ' :

Example 17.42. 

la .dynyzaz. .i la .nyzatyzoz. .i la .cyzizaz.

DNA. NATO. CIA.

… .i la .sykybulyz. .i la .ibymyz. .i la .nyzybucyz.

… SQL. IBM. NYC.


One more alternative to these lengthy cmevla is to use the lerfu string itself prefixed with me , the cmavo that makes sumti into selbri:

Example 17.43. 

la me dy ny. .abu
that-named what-pertains-to d n a

This works because la , the cmavo that normally introduces cmevla used as sumti, may also be used before a predicate to indicate that the predicate is a (meaningful) name:

Example 17.44. 

la cribe cu ciska
That-named Bear   writes.

Bear is a writer.


Example 17.44 does not of course refer to a bear ( le cribe or lo cribe) but to something else, probably a person, named Bear. Similarly, me dy ny. .abu is a predicate which can be used as a name, producing a kind of acronym which can have pauses between the individual lerfu words.

17.13. Computerized character codes

Since the first application of computers to non-numerical information, character sets have existed, mapping numbers (called character codes) into selected lerfu, digits, and punctuation marks (collectively called characters). Historically, each of these character sets has only covered a particular writing system. International efforts have now created Unicode, a unified character set that can represent essentially all the characters in essentially all the world's writing systems. Lojban can take advantage of these encoding schemes by using the cmavo se'e (of selma'o BY). This cmavo is conventionally followed by digit cmavo of selma'o PA representing the character code, and the whole string indicates a single character in some computerized character set:

Example 17.45. 

me'o se'e cixa cu lerfu la .asycy'i'is.
The-expression [code] 36   is-a-letteral-in-set   ASCII
loi rupnu be fi le merko
for-the-mass-of currency-units in the American-system.

The character code 36 in ASCII represents American dollars.

$ represents American dollars.


Understanding Example 17.45 depends on knowing the value in the ASCII character set (one of the simplest and oldest) of the $ character. Therefore, the se'e convention is only intelligible to those who know the underlying character set. For precisely specifying a particular character, however, it has the advantages of unambiguity and (relative) cultural neutrality, and therefore Lojban provides a means for those with access to descriptions of such character sets to take advantage of them.

As another example, the Unicode character set (also known as ISO 10646) represents the international symbol of peace, an inverted trident in a circle, using the base-16 value 262E. In a suitable context, a Lojbanist may say:

Example 17.46. 

me'o se'e rexarerei sinxa le ka panpi
the-expression [code] 262E is-a-sign-of the quality-of being-at-peace

When a se'e string appears in running discourse, some metalinguistic convention must specify whether the number is base 10 or some other base, and which character set is in use.

17.14. List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo

bu

BU

makes previous word into a lerfu word

ga'e

BY

upper case shift

to'a

BY

lower case shift

tau

LAU

case-shift next lerfu word only

lo'a

BY

Latin/Lojban alphabet shift

ge'o

BY

Greek alphabet shift

je'o

BY

Hebrew alphabet shift

jo'o

BY

Arabic alphabet shift

ru'o

BY

Cyrillic alphabet shift

se'e

BY

following digits are a character code

na'a

BY

cancel all shifts

zai

LAU

following lerfu word specifies alphabet

ce'a

LAU

following lerfu word specifies font

lau

LAU

following lerfu word is punctuation

tei

TEI

start compound lerfu word

foi

FOI

end compound lerfu word

Note that LAU cmavo must be followed by a BY cmavo or the equivalent, where equivalent means: either any Lojban word followed by bu , another LAU cmavo (and its required sequel), or a teifoi compound cmavo.

17.15. Proposed lerfu words – introduction

The following sections contain tables of proposed lerfu words for some of the standard alphabets supported by the Lojban lerfu system. The first column of each list is the lerfu (actually, a Latin-alphabet name sufficient to identify it). The second column is the proposed name-based lerfu word, and the third column is the proposed lerfu word in the system based on using the cmavo of selma'o BY with a shift word.

These tables are not meant to be authoritative (several authorities within the Lojban community have niggled over them extensively, disagreeing with each other and sometimes with themselves). They provide a working basis until actual usage is available, rather than a final resolution of lerfu word problems. Probably the system presented here will evolve somewhat before settling down into a final, conventional form.

For Latin-alphabet lerfu words, see Section 17.2 (for Lojban) and Section 17.5 (for non-Lojban Latin-alphabet lerfu).

17.16. Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet

α .alfas. bu .abu
β .betas. bu by.
γ .gamas. bu gy.
δ .deltas. bu dy.
ε .Epsilon. bu .ebu
ζ .zetas. bu zy.
η .etas. bu .e'ebu
θ .tetas. bu ty. bu
ι .iotas. bu .ibu
κ .kapas. bu ky.
λ .lymdas. bu ly.
μ .mus. bu my.
ν .nus. bu ny.
ξ .ksis. bu .ksis. bu
ο .Omikron. bu .obu
π .pis. bu py.
ρ .ros. bu ry.
σ .sigmas. bu sy.
τ .taus. bu ty.
υ .Upsilon. bu .ubu
φ .fis. bu py. bu
χ .xis. bu ky. bu
ψ .psis. bu .psis. bu
ω .omegas. bu .o'obu
rough breathing .dasei,as. bu .y'y.
smooth breathing .psiles. bu xutla bu

17.17. Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

The second column in this listing is based on the historical names of the letters in Old Church Slavonic. Only those letters used in Russian are shown; other languages require more letters which can be devised as needed.

а .azys. bu .abu
б .bukys. bu by.
в .vedis. bu vy.
г .glagolis. bu gy.
д .dobros. bu dy.
е .iestys. bu .ebu
ж .jivet. bu jy.
з .zemlias. bu zy.
и .ije,is. bu .ibu
й .itord. bu .itord. bu
к .kakos. bu ky.
л .liudi,ies. bu ly.
м .myslites. bu my.
н .naciys. bu ny.
о .onys. bu .obu
п .pokois. bu py.
р .riytsis. bu ry.
с .slovos. bu sy.
т .tyvriydos. bu ty.
у .ukys. bu .ubu
ф .friytys. bu fy.
х .xerys. bu xy.
ц .tsis. bu .tsys. bu
ч .tcriyviys. bu .tcys. bu
ш .cas. bu cy.
щ .ctas. bu .ctcys. bu
ъ .ier. bu jdari bu
ы .ierys. bu .ybu
ь .ieriys. bu ranti bu
э .ecarn. bu .ecarn. bu
ю .ius. bu .iubu
я .ias. bu .iabu

17.18. Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

א .alef. bu .alef. bu
ב .bet. bu by.
ג .gimel. bu gy.
ד .daled. bu dy.
ה .xex. bu .y'y.
ו .vav. bu vy.
ז .zai,in. bu zy.
ח .xet. bu xy. bu
ט .tet. bu ty. bu
י .iud. bu .iud. bu
כ .kaf. bu ky.
ל .LYmed. bu ly.
מ .mem. bu my.
נ .nun. bu ny.
ס .samex. bu .samex. bu
ע .ai,in. bu .ai,in bu
פ .pex. bu py.
צ .tsadik. bu .tsadik. bu
ק .kuf. bu ky. bu
ר .rec. bu ry.
ש .cin. bu cy.
ת .taf. bu ty.
dagesh .daGEC. bu .daGEC. bu
hiriq .xirik. bu .ibu
tsere .tseirex. bu .eibu
segol .seGOL. bu .ebu
kubutz .kubuts. bu .ubu
kamatz .kamats. bu .abu
patach .patax. bu .a'abu
shva .cyVAS. bu .ybu
holam .xolem. bu .obu
shuruk .curuk. bu .u'ubu

17.19. Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters

This list is intended to be suggestive, not complete: there are lerfu such as Polish ł and Maltese ħ that do not yet have symbols.

acute (as in á) .akut. bu or .pritygal. bu [ pritu galtu ]
grave (as in à) .grav. bu or .zulgal. bu [ zunle galtu ]
circumflex (as in â) .cirkumfleks. bu or .midgal. bu [ midju galtu ]
tilde ( ~) .tildes. bu
macron (as in ā) .makron. bu
breve (as in ă) .brevis. bu
over-dot (as in ȧ) .gapmoc. bu [ gapru mokca ]
diaeresis/umlaut/tréma (as in ä) .relmoc. bu [ re mokca ]
overring (as in å) .gapyjin. bu [ gapru djine ]
cedilla (as in ç) .seDIlys. bu
double acute (as in ) .re'akut. bu [re .akut.]
ogonek (as in ą) .ogonek. bu
caron, háček (as in ǎ) .xatcek. bu
ligatured fi tei fy. ibu foi
Danish/Latin æ tei .abu .ebu foi
Dutch ij tei .ibu jy. foi
German ß, Eszett tei sy. zy. foi

17.20. Proposed lerfu words for radio communication

There is a set of English words which are used, by international agreement, as lerfu words (for the English alphabet) over the radio, or in noisy situations where the utmost clarity is required. Formally they are known as the ICAO Phonetic Alphabet , and are used even in non-English-speaking countries.

This table presents the standard English spellings and proposed Lojban versions. The Lojbanizations are not straightforward renderings of the English sounds, but make some concessions both to the English spellings of the words and to the Lojban pronunciations of the lerfu (thus .carlis. bu , not .tcarlis. bu).

Alfa

.alfas. bu

Bravo

.bravos. bu

Charlie

.carlis. bu

Delta

.deltas. bu

Echo

.ekos. bu

Foxtrot

.fokstrot. bu

Golf

.golf. bu

Hotel

.xoTEL. bu

India

.indias. bu

Juliet

.juliet. bu

Kilo

.kilos. bu

Lima

.limas. bu

Mike

.maik. bu

November

.novembr. bu

Oscar

.oskar. bu

Papa

.paPAS. bu

Quebec

.keBEK. bu

Romeo

.romios. bu

Sierra

.sieras. bu

Tango

.tangos. bu

Uniform

.Uniform. bu

Victor

.viktas. bu

Whiskey

.uiskis. bu

X-ray

.eksreis. bu

Yankee

.iankis. bu

Zulu

.zulus. bu

Chapter 18. lojbau mekso: mathematical expressions in Lojban

The picture for chapter 18

18.1. Introductory

lojbau mekso ( Lojbanic mathematical-expression) is the part of the Lojban language that is tailored for expressing statements of a mathematical character, or for adding numerical information to non-mathematical statements. Its formal design goals include:

  1. representing all the different forms of expression used by mathematicians in their normal modes of writing, so that a reader can unambiguously read off mathematical text as written with minimal effort and expect a listener to understand it;

  2. providing a vocabulary of commonly used mathematical terms which can readily be expanded to include newly coined words using the full resources of Lojban;

  3. permitting the formulation, both in writing and in speech, of unambiguous mathematical text;

  4. encompassing all forms of quantified expression found in natural languages, as well as encouraging greater precision in ordinary language situations than natural languages allow.

Goal 1 requires that mekso not be constrained to a single notation such as Polish notation or reverse Polish notation, but make provision for all forms, with the most commonly used forms the most easily used.

Goal 2 requires the provision of several conversion mechanisms, so that the boundary between mekso and full Lojban can be crossed from either side at many points.

Goal 3 is the most subtle. Written mathematical expression is culturally unambiguous, in the sense that mathematicians in all parts of the world understand the same written texts to have the same meanings. However, international mathematical notation does not prescribe unique forms. For example, the expression

Example 18.1. 

3 x + 2 y

contains omitted multiplication operators, but there are other possible interpretations for the strings 3x and 2y than as mathematical multiplication. Therefore, the Lojban verbal (spoken and written) form of Example 18.1 must not omit the multiplication operators.

The remainder of this chapter explains (in as much detail as is currently possible) the mekso system. This chapter is by intention complete as regards mekso components, but only suggestive about uses of those components – as of now, there has been no really comprehensive use made of mekso facilities, and many matters must await the test of usage to be fully clarified.

18.2. Lojban numbers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

pa

PA

1

re

PA

2

ci

PA

3

vo

PA

4

mu

PA

5

xa

PA

6

ze

PA

7

bi

PA

8

so

PA

9

no

PA

0

The simplest kind of mekso are numbers, which are cmavo or compound cmavo. There are cmavo for each of the 10 decimal digits, and numbers greater than 9 are made by stringing together the cmavo. Some examples:

Example 18.2. 

pa re ci
one two three
123

one hundred and twenty three


Example 18.3. 

pa no
one zero
10

ten


Example 18.4. 

pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no
one two three four five six seven eight nine zero
1234567890

one billion, two hundred and thirty-four million, five hundred and sixty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety.


Therefore, there are no separate cmavo for ten , hundred , etc.

There is a pattern to the digit cmavo (except for no , 0) which is worth explaining. The cmavo from 1 to 5 end in the vowels a , e , i , o , u respectively; and the cmavo from 6 to 9 likewise end in the vowels a , e , i , and o respectively. None of the digit cmavo begin with the same consonant, to make them easy to tell apart in noisy environments.

18.3. Signs and numerical punctuation

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ma'u

PA

positive sign

ni'u

PA

negative sign

pi

PA

decimal point

fi'u

PA

fraction slash

ra'e

PA

repeating decimal

ce'i

PA

percent sign

ki'o

PA

comma between digits

A number can be given an explicit sign by the use of ma'u and ni'u , which are the positive and negative signs as distinct from the addition, subtraction, and negation operators. For example:

Example 18.5. 

ni'u pa
negative-sign 1
-1

Grammatically, the signs are part of the number to which they are attached. It is also possible to use ma'u and ni'u by themselves as numbers; the meaning of these numbers is explained in Section 18.8.

Various numerical punctuation marks are likewise expressed by cmavo, as illustrated in the following examples:

Example 18.6. 

ci pi pa vo pa mu
three point one four one five
3.1415

(In some cultures, a comma is used instead of a period in the symbolic version of Example 18.6 ; pi is still the Lojban representation for the decimal point.)

Example 18.7. 

re fi'u ze
two fraction seven
2 7

Example 18.7 is the name of the number two-sevenths; it is not the same as the result of 2 divided by 7 in Lojban, although numerically these two are equal. If the denominator of the fraction is present but the numerator is not, the numerator is taken to be 1, thus expressing the reciprocal of the following number:

Example 18.8. 

fi'u ze
fraction seven
1 7

Example 18.9. 

pi ci mu ra'e pa vo re bi mu ze
point three five repeating one four two eight five seven
.35142857142857...

Note that the ra'e marks unambiguously where the repeating portion 142857 begins.

Example 18.10. 

ci mu ce'i
three five percent
35%

Example 18.11. 

pa ki'o re ci vo ki'o mu xa ze
one comma two three four comma five six seven
1,234,567

(In some cultures, spaces are used in the symbolic representation of Example 18.11 ; ki'o is still the Lojban representation.)

It is also possible to have less than three digits between successive ki'o s, in which case zeros are assumed to have been elided:

Example 18.12. 

pa ki'o re ci ki'o vo
one comma two three comma four
1,023,004

In the same way, ki'o can be used after pi to divide fractions into groups of three:

Example 18.13. 

pi ki'o re re
point comma two two
.022

Example 18.14. 

pi pa ki'o pa re ki'o pa
point one comma one two comma one
.001012001

18.4. Special numbers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ci'i

PA

infinity,

ka'o

PA

imaginary i , √-1

pai

PA

π, pi (approx 3.14159...)

te'o

PA

exponential e (approx 2.71828...)

fi'u

PA

golden ratio, φ , phi, (1 + √5) / 2 (approx. 1.61803...)

The last cmavo is the same as the fraction sign cmavo: a fraction sign with neither numerator nor denominator represents the golden ratio.

Numbers can have any of these digit, punctuation, and special-number cmavo of Sections 2, 3, and 4 in any combination:

Example 18.15. 

ma'u ci'i
+∞

Example 18.16. 

ci ka'o re

3i2 (a complex number equivalent to 3 + 2i)


Note that ka'o is both a special number (meaning i) and a number punctuation mark (separating the real and the imaginary parts of a complex number).

Example 18.17. 

ci'i no

infinity zero

0 (a transfinite cardinal)


The special numbers pai and te'o are mathematically important, which is why they are given their own cmavo:

Example 18.18. 

pai

pi, π


Example 18.19. 

te'o

e


However, many combinations are as yet undefined:

Example 18.20. 

pa pi re pi ci

1.2.3


Example 18.21. 

pa ni'u re
1 negative-sign 2

Example 18.21 is not 1 minus 2 , which is represented by a different cmavo sequence altogether. It is a single number which has not been assigned a meaning. There are many such numbers which have no well-defined meaning; they may be used for experimental purposes or for future expansion of the Lojban number system.

It is possible, of course, that some of these oddities do have a meaningful use in some restricted area of mathematics. A mathematician appropriating these structures for specialized use needs to consider whether some other branch of mathematics would use the structure differently.

More information on numbers may be found in Section 18.8 to Section 18.12.

18.5. Simple infix expressions and equations

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

du

GOhA

equals

su'i

VUhU

plus

vu'u

VUhU

minus

pi'i

VUhU

times

te'a

VUhU

raised to the power

ny.

BY

letter n

vei

VEI

left parenthesis

ve'o

VEhO

right parenthesis

Let us begin at the beginning: one plus one equals two. In Lojban, that sentence translates to:

Example 18.22. 

li pa su'i pa du li re
The-number one plus one equals the-number two.
1 + 1 = 2

Example 18.22 , a mekso sentence, is a regular Lojban bridi that exploits mekso features. du is the predicate meaning x1 is mathematically equal to x2. It is a cmavo for conciseness, but it has the same grammatical uses as any brivla. Outside mathematical contexts, du means x1 is identical with x2 or x1 is the same object as x2.

The cmavo li is the number article. It is required whenever a sentence talks about numbers as numbers, as opposed to using numbers to quantify things. For example:

Example 18.23. 

le ci prenu

the three persons


requires no li article, because the ci is being used to specify the number of prenu. However, the sentence

Example 18.24. 

levi sfani cu grake li ci
This fly masses-in-grams the-number three.

This fly has a mass of 3 grams.


requires li because ci is being used as a sumti. Note that this is the way in which measurements are stated in Lojban: all the predicates for units of length, mass, temperature, and so on have the measured object as the first place and a number as the second place. Using li for le in Example 18.23 would produce

Example 18.25. 

li ci prenu
The-number 3 is-a-person.

which is grammatical but nonsensical: numbers are not persons.

The cmavo su'i belongs to selma'o VUhU, which is composed of mathematical operators, and means addition. As mentioned before, it is distinct from ma'u which means the positive sign as an indication of a positive number:

Example 18.26. 

li ma'u pa su'i
The-number positive-sign one plus
ni'u pa du li no
negative-sign one equals the-number zero.
+1 + -1 = 0

Of course, it is legal to have complex mekso on both sides of du :

Example 18.27. 

li mu su'i pa du li ci su'i ci
The-number five plus one equals the-number three plus three.
5 + 1 = 3 + 3

Why don't we say li mu su'i li pa rather than just li mu su'i pa ? The answer is that VUhU operators connect mekso operands (numbers, in Example 18.27), not general sumti. li is used to make the entire mekso into a sumti, which then plays the roles applicable to other sumti: in Example 18.27 , filling the places of a bridi

By default, Lojban mathematics is like simple calculator mathematics: there is no notion of operator precedence. Consider the following example, where pi'i means times , the multiplication operator:

Example 18.28. 

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li reci
The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two-three.
3 + 4 × 5 = 23

Is the Lojban version of Example 18.28 true? No! 3 + 4 × 5 is indeed 23, because the usual conventions of mathematics state that multiplication takes precedence over addition; that is, the multiplication 4 × 5 is done first, giving 20, and only then the addition 3 + 20. But VUhU operators by default are done left to right, like other Lojban grouping, and so a truthful bridi would be:

Example 18.29. 

li ci su'i vo pi'i mu du li cimu
The-number three plus four times five equals the-number three-five.
3 + 4 × 5 = 35

Here we calculate 3 + 4 first, giving 7, and then calculate 7 × 5 second, leading to the result 35. While possessing the advantage of simplicity, this result violates the design goal of matching the standards of mathematics. What can be done?

There are three solutions, all of which will probably be used to some degree. The first solution is to ignore the problem. People will say li ci su'i vo pi'i mu and mean 23 by it, because the notion that multiplication takes precedence over addition is too deeply ingrained to be eradicated by Lojban parsing, which totally ignores semantics. This convention essentially allows semantics to dominate syntax in this one area.

(Why not hard-wire the precedences into the grammar, as is done in computer programming languages? Essentially because there are too many operators, known and unknown, with levels of precedence that vary according to usage. The programming language 'C' has 13 levels of precedence, and its list of operators is not even extensible. For Lojban this approach is just not practical. In addition, hard-wired precedence could not be overridden in mathematical systems such as spreadsheets where the conventions are different.)

The second solution is to use explicit means to specify the precedence of operators. This approach is fully general, but clumsy, and will be explained in Section 18.20.

The third solution is simple but not very general. When an operator is prefixed with the cmavo bi'e (of selma'o BIhE), it becomes automatically of higher precedence than other operators not so prefixed. Thus,

Example 18.30. 

li ci su'i vo bi'e pi'i mu du li reci
The-number three plus four times five equals the-number two-three.
3 + 4 × 5 = 23

is a truthful Lojban bridi. If more than one operator has a bi'e prefix, grouping is from the right; multiple bi'e prefixes on a single operator are not allowed.

In addition, of course, Lojban has the mathematical parentheses vei and ve'o , which can be used just like their written equivalents ( and ) to group expressions in any way desired:

Example 18.31. 

li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o]
The-number ( n plus one ) times ( n plus one )
du li ny. [bi'e] te'a re
equals the-number n to-the-power two
su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa
plus two times n plus 1.
(n+1)(n+1) = n 2 + 2n + 1

There are several new usages in Example 18.31 : te'a means raised to the power , and we also see the use of the lerfu word ny. , representing the letter n. In mekso, letters stand for just what they do in ordinary mathematics: variables. The parser will accept a string of lerfu words (called a lerfu string) as the equivalent of a single lerfu word, in agreement with computer-science conventions; abc is a single variable, not the equivalent of a × b × c. (Of course, a local convention could state that the value of a variable like abc , with a multi-lerfu name, was equal to the values of the variables a , b , and c multiplied together.)

The explicit operator pi'i is required in the Lojban verbal form whereas multiplication is implicit in the symbolic form. Note that ve'o (the right parenthesis) is an elidable terminator: the first use of it in Example 18.31 is required, but the second use (marked by square brackets) could be elided. Additionally, the first bi'e (also marked by square brackets) is not necessary to get the proper grouping, but it is included here for symmetry with the other one.

18.6. Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

boi

BOI

numeral/lerfu string terminator

va'a

VUhU

negation/additive inverse

pe'o

PEhO

forethought flag

ku'e

KUhE

forethought terminator

ma'o

MAhO

convert operand to operator

py.

BY

letter p

xy.

BY

letter x

zy.

BY

letter z

fy.

BY

letter f

The infix form explained so far is reasonable for many purposes, but it is limited and rigid. It works smoothly only where all operators have exactly two operands, and where precedences can either be assumed from context or are limited to just two levels, with some help from parentheses.

But there are many operators which do not have two operands, or which have a variable number of operands. The preferred form of expression in such cases is the use of forethought operators , also known as Polish notation. In this style of writing mathematics, the operator comes first and the operands afterwards:

Example 18.32. 

li su'i paboi reboi ci[boi] du li xa
The-number the-sum-of one two three equals the-number six.
sum(1,2,3) = 6

Note that the normally elidable number terminator boi is required after pa and re because otherwise the reading would be pareci = 123. It is not required after ci but is inserted here in brackets for the sake of symmetry. The only time boi is required is, as in Example 18.32 , when there are two consecutive numbers or lerfu strings.

Forethought mekso can use any number of operands, in Example 18.32 , three. How do we know how many operands there are in ambiguous circumstances? The usual Lojban solution is employed: an elidable terminator, namely ku'e. Here is an example:

Example 18.33. 

li py. su'i va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du
The-number p plus negative-of( n ) plus z equals
li xy.
the-number x .
p + -n + z = x

where we know that va'a is a forethought operator because there is no operand preceding it.

va'a is the numerical negation operator, of selma'o VUhU. In contrast, vu'u is not used for numerical negation, but only for subtraction, as it always has two or more operands. Do not confuse va'a and vu'u , which are operators, with ni'u , which is part of a number.

In Example 18.33 , the operator va'a and the terminator ku'e serve in effect as parentheses. (The regular parentheses vei and ve'o are NOT used for this purpose.) If the ku'e were omitted, the su'i zy would be swallowed up by the va'a forethought operator, which would then appear to have two operands, ny. and su'i zy. , where the latter is also a forethought expression.

Forethought mekso is also useful for matching standard functional notation. How do we represent z = f(x) ? The answer is:

Example 18.34. 

li zy du li ma'o fy.boi xy.
The-number z equals the-number the-operator f x.
z = f(x)

Again, no parentheses are used. The construct ma'o fy.boi is the equivalent of an operator, and appears in forethought here (although it could also be used as a regular infix operator). In mathematics, letters sometimes mean functions and sometimes mean variables, with only the context to tell which. Lojban chooses to accept the variable interpretation as the default, and uses the special flag ma'o to mark a lerfu string as an operator. The cmavo xy. and zy. are variables, but fy. is an operator (a function) because ma'o marks it as such. The boi is required because otherwise the xy. would look like part of the operator name. (The use of ma'o can be generalized from lerfu strings to any mekso operand: see Section 18.21.)

When using forethought mekso, the optional marker pe'o may be placed in front of the operator. This usage can help avoid confusion by providing clearly marked pe'o and ku'e pairs to delimit the operand list. Example 18.32 to Example 18.34 , respectively, with explicit pe'o and ku'e :

Example 18.35. 

li pe'o su'i paboi reboi ciboi ku'e du li xa


Example 18.36. 

li py. su'i pe'o va'a ny. ku'e su'i zy du li xy.


Example 18.37. 

li zy du li pe'o ma'o fy.boi xy. ku'e


Note: When using forethought mekso, be sure that the operands really are operands: they cannot contain regular infix expressions unless parenthesized with vei and ve'o. An earlier version of the complex Example 18.119 came to grief because I forgot this rule.

18.7. Other useful selbri for mekso bridi

So far our examples have been isolated mekso (it is legal to have a bare mekso as a sentence in Lojban) and equation bridi involving du. What about inequalities such as x < 5 ? The answer is to use a bridi with an appropriate selbri, thus:

Example 18.38. 

li xy. mleca li mu
The-number x is-less-than the-number 5.

Here is a partial list of selbri useful in mathematical bridi:

du x1 is identical to x2, x3, x4, ...
dunli x1 is equal/congruent to x2 in/on property/quality/dimension/quantity x3
mleca x1 is less than x2
zmadu x1 is greater than x2
dubjavme'a x1 is less than or equal to x2 [ du ja mleca , equal or less]
dubjavmau x1 is greater than or equal to x2 [ du ja zmadu , equal or greater]
tamdu'i x1 is similar to x2 [ tarmi dunli , shape-equal]
turdu'i x1 is isomorphic to x2 [ stura dunli , structure-equal]
cmima x1 is a member of set x2
gripau x1 is a subset of set x2 [ girzu pagbu , set-part]
na'ujbi x1 is approximately equal to x2 [ namcu jibni , number-near]
terci'e x1 is a component with function x2 of system x3

Note the difference between dunli and du ; dunli has a third place that specifies the kind of equality that is meant. du refers to actual identity, and can have any number of places:

Example 18.39. 

py. du xy.boi zy.
p is-identical-to x z
p = x = z

Lojban bridi can have only one predicate, so the du is not repeated.

Any of these selbri may usefully be prefixed with na , the contradictory negation cmavo, to indicate that the relation is false:

Example 18.40. 

li re su'i re na du li mu
the-number 2 + 2 is-not equal-to the-number 5.
2 + 2 ≠ 5

As usual in Lojban, negated bridi say what is false, and do not say anything about what might be true.

18.8. Indefinite numbers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ro

PA

all

so'a

PA

almost all

so'e

PA

most

so'i

PA

many

so'o

PA

several

so'u

PA

a few

no'o

PA

the typical number of

da'a

PA

all but (one) of

piro

PA+PA

the whole of/all of

piso'a

PA+PA

almost the whole of

piso'e

PA+PA

most of

piso'i

PA+PA

much of

piso'o

PA+PA

a small part of

piso'u

PA+PA

a tiny part of

pino'o

PA+PA

the typical portion of

rau

PA

enough

du'e

PA

too many

mo'a

PA

too few

pirau

PA+PA

enough of

pidu'e

PA+PA

too much of

pimo'a

PA+PA

too little of

Not all the cmavo of PA represent numbers in the usual mathematical sense. For example, the cmavo ro means all or each. This number does not have a definite value in the abstract: li ro is undefined. But when used to count or quantify something, the parallel between ro and pa is clearer:

Example 18.41. 

mi catlu pa prenu
I look-at one person

Example 18.42. 

mi catlu ro prenu
I look-at all persons

Example 18.41 might be true, whereas Example 18.42 is almost certainly false.

The cmavo so'a , so'e , so'i , so'o , and so'u represent a set of indefinite numbers less than ro. As you go down an alphabetical list, the magnitude decreases:

Example 18.43. 

mi catlu so'a prenu
I look-at almost-all persons

Example 18.44. 

mi catlu so'e prenu
I look-at most persons

Example 18.45. 

mi catlu so'i prenu
I look-at many persons

Example 18.46. 

mi catlu so'o prenu
I look-at several persons

Example 18.47. 

mi catlu so'u prenu
I look-at a-few persons

The English equivalents are only rough: the cmavo provide space for up to five indefinite numbers between ro and no , with a built-in ordering. In particular, so'e does not mean most in the sense of a majority or more than half.

Each of these numbers, plus ro , may be prefixed with pi (the decimal point) in order to make a fractional form which represents part of a whole rather than some elements of a totality. piro therefore means the whole of :

Example 18.48. 

mi citka piro lei nanba
I eat the-whole-of the-mass-of bread

Similarly, piso'a means almost the whole of ; and so on down to piso'u , a tiny part of. These numbers are particularly appropriate with masses, which are usually measured rather than counted, as Example 18.48 shows.

In addition to these cmavo, there is no'o , meaning the typical value , and pino'o , meaning the typical portion : Sometimes no'o can be translated the average value , but the average in question is not, in general, a mathematical mean, median, or mode; these would be more appropriately represented by operators.

Example 18.49. 

mi catlu no'o prenu
I look-at a-typical-number-of persons

Example 18.50. 

mi citka pino'o lei nanba
I eat a-typical-amount-of the-mass-of bread.

da'a is a related cmavo meaning all but :

Example 18.51. 

mi catlu da'a re prenu
I look-at all-but two persons

Example 18.52. 

mi catlu da'a so'u prenu
I look-at all-but a-few persons

Example 18.52 is similar in meaning to Example 18.43.

If no number follows da'a , then pa is assumed; da'a by itself means all but one , or in ordinal contexts all but the last :

Example 18.53. 

ro ratcu ka'e citka da'a ratcu
All rats can eat all-but-one rats.

All rats can eat all other rats.


(The use of da'a means that Example 18.53 does not require that all rats can eat themselves, but does allow it. Each rat has one rat it cannot eat, but that one might be some rat other than itself. Context often dictates that itself is, indeed, the other rat.)

As mentioned in Section 18.3 , ma'u and ni'u are also legal numbers, and they mean some positive number and some negative number respectively.

Example 18.54. 

li ci vu'u re du li ma'u
the-number 3 2 = some-positive-number

Example 18.55. 

li ci vu'u vo du li ni'u
the-number 3 4 = some-negative-number

Example 18.56. 

mi ponse le rupnu be li ma'u
I possess the currency-units of a-positive-number.

All of the numbers discussed so far are objective, even if indefinite. If there are exactly six superpowers ( rairgugde , superlative-states) in the world, then ro rairgugde means the same as xa rairgugde. It is often useful, however, to express subjective indefinite values. The cmavo rau (enough), du'e (too many), and mo'a (too few) are then appropriate:

Example 18.57. 

mi ponse le rupnu be li rau
I possess the currency-units of the-number enough.

Like the so'a -series, rau , du'e , and mo'a can be preceded by pi ; for example, pirau means a sufficient part of.

Another possibility is that of combining definite and indefinite numbers into a single number. This usage implies that the two kinds of numbers have the same value in the given context:

Example 18.58. 

mi viska le rore gerku
I saw the all-of/two dogs.

I saw both dogs.


Example 18.59. 

mi speni so'ici prenu
I am-married-to many/three persons.

I am married to three persons (which is many in the circumstances).


Example 18.59 assumes a mostly monogamous culture by stating that three is many.

18.9. Approximation and inexact numbers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ji'i

PA

approximately

su'e

PA

at most

su'o

PA

at least

me'i

PA

less than

za'u

PA

more than

The cmavo ji'i (of selma'o PA) is used in several ways to indicate approximate or rounded numbers. If it appears at the beginning of a number, the whole number is approximate:

Example 18.60. 

ji'i vo no
approximation four zero

approximately 40


If ji'i appears in the middle of a number, all the digits following it are approximate:

Example 18.61. 

vo no ji'i mu no
four zero approximation five zero

roughly 4050 (where the four thousand is exact, but the fifty is approximate)


If ji'i appears at the end of a number, it indicates that the number has been rounded. In addition, it can then be followed by a sign cmavo ( ma'u or ni'u), which indicate truncation towards positive or negative infinity respectively.

Example 18.62. 

re pi ze re ji'i
two point seven two approximation

2.72 (rounded)


Example 18.63. 

re pi ze re ji'i ma'u
two point seven two approximation positive-sign

2.72 (rounded up)


Example 18.64. 

re pi ze pa ji'i ni'u
two point seven one approximation negative-sign

2.71 (rounded down)


Example 18.62 through Example 18.64 are all approximations to te'o (exponential e). ji'i can also appear by itself, in which case it means approximately the typical value in this context.

The four cmavo su'e , su'o , me'i , and za'u , also of selma'o PA, express inexact numbers with upper or lower bounds:

Example 18.65. 

mi catlu su'e re prenu
I look-at at-most two persons

Example 18.66. 

mi catlu su'o re prenu
I look-at at-least two persons

Example 18.67. 

mi catlu me'i re prenu
I look-at less-than two persons

Example 18.68. 

mi catlu za'u re prenu
I look-at more-than two persons

Each of these is a subtly different claim: Example 18.66 is true of two or any greater number, whereas Example 18.68 requires three persons or more. Likewise, Example 18.65 refers to zero, one, or two; Example 18.67 to zero or one. (Of course, when the context allows numbers other than non-negative integers, me'i re can be any number less than 2, and likewise with the other cases.) The exact quantifier, exactly 2, neither more nor less is just re. Note that su'ore is the exact Lojban equivalent of English plurals.

If no number follows one of these cmavo, pa is understood: therefore,

Example 18.69. 

mi catlu su'o prenu
I look-at at-least-[one] person

is a meaningful claim.

Like the numbers in Section 18.8 , all of these cmavo may be preceded by pi to make the corresponding quantifiers for part of a whole. For example, pisu'o means at least some part of. The quantifiers ro , su'o , piro , and pisu'o are particularly important in Lojban, as they are implicitly used in the descriptions introduced by the cmavo of selma'o LA and LE, as explained in Section 6.7. Descriptions in general are outside the scope of this chapter.

18.10. Non-decimal and compound bases

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ju'u

VUhU

to the base

dau

PA

hex digit A = 10

fei

PA

hex digit B = 11

gai

PA

hex digit C = 12

jau

PA

hex digit D = 13

rei

PA

hex digit E = 14

vai

PA

hex digit F = 15

pi'e

PA

compound base point

In normal contexts, Lojban assumes that all numbers are expressed in the decimal (base 10) system. However, other bases are possible, and may be appropriate in particular circumstances.

To specify a number in a particular base, the VUhU operator ju'u is suitable:

Example 18.70. 

li panopano ju'u re du li pano
The-number 1010 base 2 equals the-number 1 0.

Here, the final pa no is assumed to be base 10, as usual; so is the base specification. (The base may also be changed permanently by a metalinguistic specification; no standard way of doing so has as yet been worked out.)

Lojban has digits for representing bases up to 16, because 16 is a base often used in computer applications. In English, it is customary to use the letters A-F as the base 16 digits equivalent to the numbers ten through fifteen. In Lojban, this ambiguity is avoided:

Example 18.71. 

li daufeigai ju'u paxa du li rezevobi
The-number ABC base 16 equals the-number 2748.

Example 18.72. 

li jaureivai ju'u paxa du li cimuxaze
The-number DEF base 16 equals the-number 3567.

Note the pattern in the cmavo: the diphthongs .au , .ei , .ai are used twice in the same order. The digits for A to D use consonants different from those used in the decimal digit cmavo; E and F unfortunately overlap 2 and 4 – there was simply not enough available cmavo space to make a full differentiation possible. The cmavo are also in alphabetical order.

The base point pi is used in non-decimal bases just as in base 10:

Example 18.73. 

li vai pi bi ju'u paxa du li pamu pi mu
The-number F . 8 base 16 equals the-number 15 . 5.

Since ju'u is an operator of selma'o VUhU, it is grammatical to use any operand as the left argument. Semantically, however, it is undefined to use anything but a numeral string on the left. The reason for making ju'u an operator is to allow reference to a base which is not a constant.

There are some numerical values that require a base that varies from digit to digit. For example, times represented in hours, minutes, and seconds have, in effect, three digits : the first is base 24, the second and third are base 60. To express such numbers, the compound base separator pi'e is used:

Example 18.74. 

ci pi'e rere pi'e vono
3:22:40

Each digit sequence separated by instances of pi'e is expressed in decimal notation, but the number as a whole is not decimal and can only be added and subtracted by special rules:

Example 18.75. 

li ci pi'e rere pi'e vono su'i pi'e ci pi'e cici
The-number 3 : 22 : 40 plus : 3 : 33
du li ci pi'e rexa pi'e paci
equals the-number 3 : 26 : 13.
3:22:40 + 0:3:33 = 3:26:13

Of course, only context tells you that the first part of the numbers in Example 18.74 and Example 18.75 is hours, the second minutes, and the third seconds.

The same mechanism using pi'e can be used to express numbers which have a base larger than 16. For example, base-20 Mayan mathematics might use digits from no to paso , each separated by pi'e :

Example 18.76. 

li pa pi'e re pi'e ci ju'u reno du li vovoci
the-number 1 ; 2 ; 3 base 20 equals the-number 443

Carefully note the difference between:

Example 18.77. 

pano ju'u reno
the-digit-10 base 20

which is equal to ten, and:

Example 18.78. 

pa pi'e no ju'u reno
1;0 base 20

which is equal to twenty.

Both pi and pi'e can be used to express large-base fractions:

Example 18.79. 

li pa pi'e vo pi ze ju'u reno
The-number 1 ; 4 . 7 base 20
du li revo pi cimu
equals the-number 24 . 35

pi'e is also used where the base of each digit is vague, as in the numbering of the examples in this chapter:

Example 18.80. 

dei jufra panopi'epapamoi
This-utterance is-a-sentence-type-of 10;11th-thing.

This is Sentence 10.11.


18.11. Special mekso selbri

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mei

MOI

cardinal selbri

moi

MOI

ordinal selbri

si'e

MOI

portion selbri

cu'o

MOI

probability selbri

va'e

MOI

scale selbri

me

ME

make sumti into selbri

me'u

MEhU

terminator for ME

Lojban possesses a special category of selbri which are based on mekso. The simplest kind of such selbri are made by suffixing a member of selma'o MOI to a number. There are five members of MOI, each of which serves to create number-based selbri with specific place structures.

The cmavo mei creates cardinal selbri. The basic place structure is:

x1 is a mass formed from the set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3

A cardinal selbri interrelates a set with a given number of members, the mass formed from that set, and the individuals which make the set up. The mass argument is placed first as a matter of convenience, not logical necessity.

Some examples:

Example 18.81. 

lei mi ratcu cu cimei
Those-I-describe-as-the-mass-of my rats are-a-threesome.

My rats are three.

I have three rats.


Here, the mass of my rats is said to have three components; that is, I have three rats.

Another example, with one element this time:

Example 18.82. 

mi poi pamei cu cusku dei
I who am-an-individual express this-sentence.

In Example 18.82 , mi refers to a mass, the mass consisting of me. Personal pronouns are vague between masses, sets, and individuals.

However, when the number expressed before -mei is an objective indefinite number of the kind explained in Section 18.8 , a slightly different place structure is required:

x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4.

An example:

Example 18.83. 

lei ratcu poi zvati le panka
The-mass-of rats that are-in the park
cu so'umei fo lo'i ratcu
are-a-fewsome with-respect-to the-set-of rats.

The rats in the park are a small number of all the rats there are.


In Example 18.83 , the x2 and x3 places are vacant, and the x4 place is filled by lo'i ratcu , which (because no quantifiers are explicitly given) means the whole of the set of all those things which are rats , or simply the set of all rats.

Example 18.84. 

le'i ratcu poi zvati le panka cu se so'imei
The-set-of rats which-are in the park is-a manysome.

There are many rats in the park.


In Example 18.84 , the conversion cmavo se swaps the x1 and the x2 places, so that the new x1 is the set. The x4 set is unspecified, so the implication is that the rats are many with respect to some unspecified comparison set.

More explanations about the interrelationship of sets, masses, and individuals can be found in Section 6.3.

The cmavo moi creates ordinal selbri. The place structure is:

x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3

Some examples:

Example 18.85. 

ti pamoi le'i mi ratcu
This-one is-the-first-of the associated-with-me rats.

This is my first rat.


Example 18.86. 

ta romoi le'i mi ratcu
That is-the-allth-of the associated-with-me rats.

That is my last rat.


Example 18.87. 

mi raumoi le velskina porsi
I am-enough-th-in the movie-audience sequence

I am enough-th in the movie line.


Example 18.87 means, in the appropriate context, that my position in line is sufficiently far to the front that I will get a seat for the movie.

The cmavo si'e creates portion selbri. The place structure is:

x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2

Some examples:

Example 18.88. 

levi sanmi cu fi'ucisi'e lei mi djedi cidja
This-here meal is-a-slash-three-portion-of my day food.

This meal is one-third of my daily food.


The cmavo cu'o creates probability selbri. The place structure is:

event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2

The number must be between 0 and 1 inclusive. For example:

Example 18.89. 

le nu lo sicni cu sedja'o cu pimucu'o
The event-of a coin being-a-head-displayer has-probability-.5.

The cmavo va'e creates a scale selbri. The place structure is:

x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2

If the scale is granular rather than continuous, a form like cifi'uxa (3/6) may be used; in this case, 3/6 is not the same as 1/2, because the third position on a scale of six positions is not the same as the first position on a scale of two positions. Here is an example:

Example 18.90. 

levi rozgu cu sofi'upanova'e xunre
This-here rose is-9/10-scale red.

This rose is 9 out of 10 on the scale of redness.

This rose is very red.


When the quantifier preceding any MOI cmavo includes the subjective numbers rau , du'e , or mo'a (enough, too many, too few) then an additional place is added for by standard. For example:

Example 18.91. 

lei ratcu poi zvati le
The-mass-of rats which-are in the
panka cu du'emei fo mi
park are-too-many by-standard me.

There are too many rats in the park for me.


The extra place (which for -mei is the x4 place labeled by fo) is provided rather than using a BAI tag such as ma'i because a specification of the standard for judgment is essential to the meaning of subjective words like enough.

This place is not normally explicit when using one of the subjective numbers directly as a number. Therefore, du'e ratcu means too many rats without specifying any standard.

It is also grammatical to substitute a lerfu string for a number:

Example 18.92. 

ta ny.moi le'i mi ratcu
That is-nth-of the-set-of associated-with-me rats.

That is my nth rat.


More complex mekso cannot be placed directly in front of MOI, due to the resulting grammatical ambiguities. Instead, a somewhat artificial form of expression is required.

The cmavo me (of selma'o ME) has the function of making a sumti into a selbri. A whole me construction can have a member of MOI added to the end to create a complex mekso selbri:

Example 18.93. 

ta me li ny. su'i pa me'u moi
That is the-number n plus one -th-of
le'i mi ratcu
the-set-of associated-with-me rats.

That is my (n+1)-th rat.


Here the mekso ny. su'i pa is made into a sumti (with li) and then changed into a mekso selbri with me and me'u moi. The elidable terminator me'u is required here in order to keep the pa and the moi separate; otherwise, the parser will combine them into the compound pamoi and reject the sentence as ungrammatical.

It is perfectly possible to use non-numerical sumti after me and before a member of MOI, producing strange results indeed:

Example 18.94. 

le nu mi nolraitru cu me
The event-of me being-a-nobly-superlative-ruler
le'e snime bolci be vi la .xel. cu'o
has-the-stereotypical snow type-of-ball at Hell probability.

I have a snowball's chance in Hell of being king.


Note: the elidable terminator boi is not used between a number and a member of MOI. As a result, the me'u in Example 18.93 could also be replaced by a boi , which would serve the same function of preventing the pa and moi from joining into a compound.

18.12. Number questions

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xo

PA

number question

The cmavo xo , a member of selma'o PA, is used to ask questions whose answers are numbers. Like most Lojban question words, it fills the blank where the answer should go. (See Section 19.5 for more on Lojban questions.)

Example 18.95. 

li re su'i re du li xo
The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number what?

What is 2 + 2?


Example 18.96. 

le xomoi prenu cu darxi do
The what-number-th person hit you?

Which person [as in a police lineup] hit you?


xo can also be combined with other digits to ask questions whose answers are already partly specified. This ability could be very useful in writing tests of elementary arithmetical knowledge:

Example 18.97. 

li remu pi'i xa du li paxono
The-number 25 times 6 equals the-number 1?0

to which the correct reply would be mu , or 5. The ability to utter bare numbers as grammatical Lojban sentences is primarily intended for giving answers to xo questions. (Another use, obviously, is for counting off physical objects one by one.)

18.13. Subscripts

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi

XI

subscript

Subscripting is a general Lojban feature, not used only in mekso; there are many things that can logically be subscripted, and grammatically a subscript is a free modifier, usable almost anywhere. In particular, of course, mekso variables (lerfu strings) can be subscripted:

Example 18.98. 

li xy.boixici du li xy.boixipa su'i xy.boixire
The-number x-sub-3 equals the-number x-sub-1 plus x-sub-2.
x 3 = x 1 + x 2

Subscripts always begin with the flag xi (of selma'o XI). xi may be followed by a number, a lerfu string, or a general mekso expression in parentheses:

Example 18.99. 

xy.boixino
x 0

Example 18.100. 

xy.boixiny.
x n

Example 18.101. 

xy.boixi vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o]
x (n+1)

Note that subscripts attached directly to lerfu words (variables) generally need a boi terminating the variable. Free modifiers, of which subscripts are one variety, generally require the explicit presence of an otherwise elidable terminator.

There is no standard way of handling superscripts (other than those used as exponents) or for subscripts or superscripts that come before the main expression. If necessary, further cmavo could be assigned to selma'o XI for these purposes.

The elidable terminator for a subscript is that for a general number or lerfu string, namely boi. By convention, a subscript following another subscript is taken to be a sub-subscript:

Example 18.102. 

xy.boi xi by.boi xi vo
x b 4

See Example 18.123 for the standard method of specifying multiple subscripts on a single object.

More information on the uses of subscripts may be found in Section 19.6.

18.14. Infix operators revisited

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

tu'o

PA

null operand

ge'a

VUhU

null operator

gei

VUhU

exponential notation

The infix operators presented so far have always had exactly two operands, and for more or fewer operands forethought notation has been required. However, it is possible to use an operator in infix style even though it has more or fewer than two operands, through the use of a pair of tricks: the null operand tu'o and the null operator ge'a. The first is suitable when there are too few operands, the second when there are too many. For example, suppose we wanted to express the numerical negation operator va'a in infix form. We would use:

Example 18.103. 

li tu'o va'a ny. du li no vu'u ny.
The-number (null) additive-inverse n equals the-number zero minus n.
-n = 0 − n

The tu'o fulfills the grammatical requirement for a left operand for the infix use of va'a , even though semantically none is needed or wanted.

Finding a suitable example of ge'a requires exhibiting a ternary operator, and ternary operators are not common. The operator gei , however, has both a binary and a ternary use. As a binary operator, it provides a terse representation of scientific (also called exponential) notation. The first operand of gei is the exponent, and the second operand is the mantissa or fraction:

Example 18.104. 

li cinonoki'oki'o du
The-number three-zero-zero-comma-comma equals
li bi gei ci
the-number eight scientific three.
300,000,000 = 3 × 10 8

Why are the arguments to gei in reverse order from the conventional symbolic notation? So that gei can be used in forethought to allow easy specification of a large (or small) imprecise number:

Example 18.105. 

gei reno
(scientific) two-zero
10 20

Note, however, that although 10 is far and away the most common exponent base, it is not the only possible one. The third operand of gei , therefore, is the base, with 10 as the default value. Most computers internally store so-called floating-point numbers using 2 as the exponent base. (This has nothing to do with the fact that computers also represent all integers in base 2; the IBM 360 series used an exponent base of 16 for floating point, although each component of the number was expressed in base 2.) Here is a computer floating-point number with a value of 40:

Example 18.106. 

papano bi'eju'u re gei
(one-one-zero base 2) scientific
pipanopano bi'eju'u re ge'a re
(point-one-zero-one-zero base 2) with-base 2
.1010 2 x 2 110 2

18.15. Vectors and matrices

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

jo'i

JOhI

start vector

te'u

TEhU

end vector

pi'a

VUhU

matrix row combiner

sa'i

VUhU

matrix column combiner

A mathematical vector is a list of numbers, and a mathematical matrix is a table of numbers. Lojban considers matrices to be built up out of vectors, which are in turn built up out of operands.

jo'i , the only cmavo of selma'o JOhI, is the vector indicator: it has a syntax reminiscent of a forethought operator, but has very high precedence. The components must be simple operands rather than full expressions (unless parenthesized). A vector can have any number of components; te'u is the elidable terminator. An example:

Example 18.107. 

li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi
The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four )
du li jo'i voboi xaboi
equals the-number array( four, six ).
(1,2) + (3,4) = (4,6)

Vectors can be combined into matrices using either pi'a , the matrix row operator, or sa'i , the matrix column operator. The first combines vectors representing rows of the matrix, and the second combines vectors representing columns of the matrix. Both of them allow any number of arguments: additional arguments are tacked on with the null operator ge'a.

Therefore, the magic square matrix

8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2

can be represented either as:

Example 18.108. 

jo'i biboi paboi xa pi'a jo'i ciboi muboi ze
the-vector (8 1 6) matrix-row the-vector (3 5 7),
ge'a jo'i voboi soboi re
the-vector (4 9 2)

or as

Example 18.109. 

jo'i biboi ciboi vo sa'i jo'i paboi muboi so
the-vector (8 3 4) matrix-column the-vector (1 5 9),
ge'a jo'i xaboi zeboi re
the-vector (6 7 2)

The regular mekso operators can be applied to vectors and to matrices, since grammatically both of these are expressions. It is usually necessary to parenthesize matrices when used with operators in order to avoid incorrect groupings. There are no VUhU operators for the matrix operators of inner or outer products, but appropriate operators can be created using a suitable symbolic lerfu word or string prefixed by ma'o.

Matrices of more than two dimensions can be built up using either pi'a or sa'i with an appropriate subscript labeling the dimension. When subscripted, there is no difference between pi'a and sa'i. Labels can be any anything that xi supports, e.g. pa or mlatu bu.

18.16. Reverse Polish notation

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fu'a

FUhA

reverse Polish flag

So far, the Lojban notational conventions have mapped fairly familiar kinds of mathematical discourse. The use of forethought operators may have seemed odd when applied to + , but when applied to f they appear as the usual functional notation. Now comes a sharp break. Reverse Polish (RP) notation represents something completely different; even mathematicians don't use it much. (The only common uses of RP, in fact, are in some kinds of calculators and in the implementation of some programming languages.)

In RP notation, the operator follows the operands. (Polish notation, where the operator precedes its operands, is another name for forethought mekso of the kind explained in Section 18.6.) The number of operands per operator is always fixed. No parentheses are required or permitted. In Lojban, RP notation is always explicitly marked by a fu'a at the beginning of the expression; there is no terminator. Here is a simple example:

Example 18.110. 

li fu'a reboi ci su'i du li mu
the-number (RP!) two, three, plus equals the-number five.

The operands are re and ci ; the operator is su'i.

Here is a more complex example:

Example 18.111. 

li fu'a reboi ci pi'i voboi mu pi'i su'i
the-number (RP!) (two, three, times), (four, five, times), plus
du li rexa
equals the-number two-six

Here the operands of the first pi'i are re and ci ; the operands of the second pi'i are vo and mu (with boi inserted where needed), and the operands of the su'i are reboi ci pi'i , or 6, and voboi mu pi'i , or 20. As you can see, it is easy to get lost in the world of reverse Polish notation; on the other hand, it is especially easy for a mechanical listener (who has a deep mental stack and doesn't get lost) to comprehend.

The operands of an RP operator can be any legal mekso operand, including parenthesized mekso that can contain any valid syntax, whether more RP or something more conventional.

In Lojban, RP operators are always parsed with exactly two operands. What about operators which require only one operand, or more than two operands? The null operand tu'o and the null operator ge'a provide a simple solution. A one-operand operator like va'a always appears in a reverse Polish context as tu'o va'a. The tu'o provides the second operand, which is semantically ignored but grammatically necessary. Likewise, the three-operand version of gei appears in reverse Polish as ge'a gei , where the ge'a effectively merges the 2nd and 3rd operands into a single operand. Here are some examples:

Example 18.112. 

li fu'a ciboi muboi vu'u
The-number (RP!) (three, five, minus)
du li fu'a reboi tu'o va'a
equals the-number (RP!) two, null, negative-of.
3 − 5 = -2

Example 18.113. 

li cinoki'oki'o du
The-number 30-comma-comma equals
li fu'a biboi ciboi panoboi ge'a gei
the-number (RP!) 8, (3, 10, null-op), exponential-notation.
30,000,000 = 3 × 10 ^ 8

18.17. Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

.abu

BY

letter a

by

BY

letter b

cy

BY

letter c

fe'a

VUhU

nth root of (default square root)

lo'o

LOhO

terminator for LI

As befits a logical language, Lojban has extensive provision for logical connectives within both operators and operands. Full details on logical and non-logical connectives are provided in Chapter 14. Operands are connected in afterthought with selma'o A and in forethought with selma'o GA, just like sumti. Operators are connected in afterthought with selma'o JA and in forethought with selma'o GUhA, just like tanru components. This parallelism is no accident.

In addition, A+BO and A+KE constructs are allowed for grouping logically connected operands, and keke'e is allowed for grouping logically connected operators, although there are no analogues of tanru among the operators.

Despite the large number of rules required to support this feature, it is of relatively minor importance in the mekso scheme of things. Example 18.114 exhibits afterthought logical connection between operands:

Example 18.114. 

vei ci .a vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci
( Three or four ) people go to-the market.

Example 18.115 is equivalent in meaning, but uses forethought connection:

Example 18.115. 

vei ga ci gi vo ve'o prenu cu klama le zarci
( Either 3 or 4 ) people go to-the market.

Note that the mekso here are being used as quantifiers. Lojban requires that any mekso other than a simple number be enclosed in parentheses when used as a quantifier. This rule prevents ambiguities that do not exist when using li.

By the way, li has an elidable terminator, lo'o , which is needed when a li sumti is followed by a logical connective that could seem to be within the mekso. For example:

Example 18.116. 

li re su'i re du
The-number two plus two equals
li vo lo'o .onai lo nalseldjuno namcu
the-number four or-else a non-known number.

Omitting the lo'o would cause the parser to assume that another operand followed the .onai and reject lo as an invalid operand.

Simple examples of logical connection between operators are hard to come by. A contrived example is:

Example 18.117. 

li re su'i je pi'i re du li vo
The-number two plus and times two equals the-number four.
2 + 2 = 4 and 2 × 2 = 4.

The forethought-connection form of Example 18.117 is:

Example 18.118. 

li re ge su'i gi pi'i re du li vo
the-number two both plus and times two equals the-number four.
Both 2 + 2 = 4 and 2 × 2 = 4.

Here is a classic example of operand logical connection:

Example 18.119. 

go li .abu bi'epi'i vei xy. te'a re ve'o su'i
If-and-only-if the-number a times ( x power two ) plus
by. bi'epi'i xy. su'i cy. du li no
b times x plus c equals the-number zero
gi li xy. du li vei va'a by. ku'e
then the-number x equals the-number [ the-negation-of( b )
su'i ja vu'u fe'a
plus or minus the-root-of
vei by. bi'ete'a re vu'u vo bi'epi'i .abu bi'epi'i cy.
( b power 2 minus four times a times c
ve'o [ku'e] ve'o fe'i re bi'epi'i .abu
) ] divided-by two times a
Iff a x 2 + b x + c = 0 , then x = - b ± b 2 - 4 a c 2 a

Note the mixture of styles in Example 18.119 : the negation of b and the square root are represented by forethought and most of the operator precedence by prefixed bi'e , but explicit parentheses had to be added to group the numerator properly. In addition, the square root parentheses cannot be removed here in favor of simple fe'a and ku'e bracketing, because infix operators are present in the operand. Getting Example 18.119 to parse perfectly using the current parser took several tries: a more relaxed style would dispense with most of the bi'e cmavo and just let the standard precedence rules be understood.

Non-logical connection with JOI and BIhI is also permitted between operands and between operators. One use for this construct is to connect operands with bi'o to create intervals:

Example 18.120. 

li no ga'o bi'o ke'i pa
the-number zero (inclusive) from-to (exclusive) one
[0,1)

the numbers from zero to one, including zero but not including one


Intervals defined by a midpoint and range rather than beginning and end points can be expressed by mi'i :

Example 18.121. 

li pimu ga'o mi'i ke'i pimu
the-number 0.5 (inclusive) centered-with-range (exclusive) 0.5

which expresses the same interval as Example 18.120. Note that the ga'o and ke'i still refer to the endpoints, although these are now implied rather than expressed. Another way of expressing the same thing:

Example 18.122. 

li pimu su'i ni'upimu bi'o ke'i ma'upimu
the-number 0.5 plus [-0.5 from-to (exclusive) +0.5]

Here we have the sum of a number and an interval, which produces another interval centered on the number. As Example 18.122 shows, non-logical (or logical) connection of operands has higher precedence than any mekso operator.

You can also combine two operands with ce'o , the sequence connective of selma'o JOI, to make a compound subscript:

Example 18.123. 

xy. xi vei by. ce'o dy. [ve'o]
x sub ( b sequence d )
x b,d

18.18. Using Lojban resources within mekso

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

na'u

NAhU

selbri to operator

ni'e

NIhE

selbri to operand

mo'e

MOhE

sumti to operand

te'u

TEhU

terminator for all three

One of the mekso design goals requires the ability to make use of Lojban's vocabulary resources within mekso to extend the built-in cmavo for operands and operators. There are three relevant constructs: all three share the elidable terminator te'u (which is also used to terminate vectors marked with jo'i)

The cmavo na'u makes a selbri into an operator. In general, the first place of the selbri specifies the result of the operator, and the other unfilled places specify the operands:

Example 18.124. 

li na'u tanjo te'u
The-number the-operator tangent [end-operator]
vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i
( π / 2 ) = the-number infinity.
tan(π/2) = ∞

tanjo is the gismu for x1 is the tangent of x2 , and the na'u here makes it into an operator which is then used in forethought

The cmavo ni'e makes a selbri into an operand. The x1 place of the selbri generally represents a number, and therefore is often a ni abstraction, since ni abstractions represent numbers. The ni'e makes that number available as a mekso operand. A common application is to make equations relating pure dimensions:

Example 18.125. 

li ni'e ni clani [te'u]
The-number quantity-of length
pi'i ni'e ni ganra [te'u]
times quantity-of width
pi'i ni'e ni condi te'u
times quantity-of depth
du li ni'e ni canlu
equals the-number quantity-of volume.
Length × Width × Depth = Volume

The cmavo mo'e operates similarly to ni'e , but makes a sumti (rather than a selbri) into an operand. This construction is useful in stating equations involving dimensioned numbers:

Example 18.126. 

li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu
The-number two rats plus two rabbits
du li mo'e vo danlu
equals the-number four animals.
2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals.

Another use is in constructing Lojbanic versions of so-called folk quantifiers , such as a pride of lions :

Example 18.127. 

mi viska vei mo'e lo'e lanzu ve'o cinfo
I see ( the-typical family )-number-of lions.

I see a pride of lions.


18.19. Other uses of mekso

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

me'o

LI

the mekso

nu'a

NUhA

operator to selbri

mai

MAI

utterance ordinal

mo'o

MAI

higher order utterance ordinal

roi

ROI

quantified tense

So far we have seen mekso used as sumti (with li), as quantifiers (often parenthesized), and in MOI and ME-MOI selbri. There are a few other minor uses of mekso within Lojban.

The cmavo me'o has the same grammatical use as li but slightly different semantics. li means the number which is the value of the mekso ... , whereas me'o just means the mekso ... So it is true that:

Example 18.128. 

li re su'i re du li vo
The-number two plus two equals the-number four.
2 + 2 = 4

but false that:

Example 18.129. 

me'o re su'i re du me'o vo
The-mekso two plus two equals the-mekso four.

2 + 2 = 4


since the expressions 2 + 2 and 4 are not the same. The relationship between li and me'o is related to that between la .djan. , the person named John, and zo .djan. , the name John

The cmavo nu'a is the inverse of na'u , and allows a mekso operator to be used as a normal selbri, with the place structure:

x1 is the result of applying (operator) to x2, x3, ...

for as many places as may be required. For example:

Example 18.130. 

li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu
The-number -5 is-the-operator negation-of the-number +5.

uses nu'a to make the operator va'a into a two-place bridi

Used together, nu'a and na'u make it possible to ask questions about mekso operators, even though there is no specific cmavo for an operator question, nor is it grammatical to utter an operator in isolation. Consider Example 18.131 , to which Example 18.132 is one correct answer:

Example 18.131. 

li re na'u
The-number two applied-to-selbri
mo re du li vo
which-selbri? two equals the-number four.
2 ? 2 = 4

Example 18.132. 

nu'a su'i

plus


In Example 18.131 , na'u mo is an operator question, because mo is the selbri question cmavo and na'u makes the selbri into an operator. Example 18.132 makes the true answer su'i into a selbri (which is a legal utterance) with the inverse cmavo nu'a. Mechanically speaking, inserting Example 18.132 into Example 18.131 produces:

Example 18.133. 

li re na'u nu'a
The-number two (the-operator the-selbri
su'i re du li vo
plus) two equals the-number four.

where the na'u nu'a cancels out, leaving a truthful bridi

Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English firstly , secondly , and so on, can be created by suffixing a member of selma'o MAI to a digit string or a lerfu string. (Digit strings are compound cmavo beginning with a cmavo of selma'o PA, and containing only cmavo of PA or BY; lerfu strings begin with a cmavo of selma'o BY, and likewise contain only PA or BY cmavo.) Here are some examples:

Example 18.134. 

pamai

firstly


Example 18.135. 

remai

secondly


Example 18.136. 

romai
all-ly

lastly


Example 18.137. 

ny.mai

nth-ly


Example 18.138. 

pasomo'o

nineteenthly (higher order)

Section 19


The difference between mai and mo'o is that mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text. Each mo'o subdivision can then be divided into pieces and internally numbered with mai. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, each section would be numbered with mo'o. (See Section 19.7 for more on these words.)

A numerical tense can be created by suffixing a digit string with roi. This usage generates tenses corresponding to English once , twice , and so on. This topic belongs to a detailed discussion of Lojban tenses, and is explained further in Section 10.9.

Note: the elidable terminator boi is not used between a number and a member of MAI or ROI.

18.20. Explicit operator precedence

As mentioned earlier, Lojban does provide a way for the precedences of operators to be explicitly declared, although current parsers do not understand these declarations.

The declaration is made in the form of a metalinguistic comment using ti'o , a member of selma'o SEI. sei , the other member of SEI, is used to insert metalinguistic comments on a bridi which give information about the discourse which the bridi comprises. The format of a ti'o declaration has not been formally established, but presumably would take the form of mentioning a mekso operator and then giving it either an absolute numerical precedence on some preestablished scale, or else specifying relative precedences between new operators and existing operators.

In future, we hope to create an improved machine parser that can understand declarations of the precedences of simple operators belonging to selma'o VUhU. Originally, all operators would have the same precedence. Declarations would have the effect of raising the specified cmavo of VUhU to higher precedence levels. Complex operators formed with na'u , ni'e , or ma'o would remain at the standard low precedence; declarations with respect to them are for future implementation efforts. It is probable that such a parser would have a set of commonly assumed precedences built into it (selectable by a special ti'o declaration) that would match mathematical intuition: times higher than plus, and so on.

18.21. Miscellany

A few other points:

se can be used to convert an operator as if it were a selbri, so that its arguments are exchanged. For example:

Example 18.139. 

li ci se vu'u vo du li pa
The-number three (inverse) minus four equals the-number one.

3 subtracted from 4 equals 1.


The other converters of selma'o SE can also be used on operators with more than two operands, and they can be compounded to create (probably unintelligible) operators as needed.

Members of selma'o NAhE are also legal on an operator to produce a scalar negation of it. The implication is that some other operator would apply to make the bridi true:

Example 18.140. 

li ci na'e su'i vo du li pare
The-number 3 non- plus 4 equals the-number 12.

Example 18.141. 

li ci to'e vu'u re du li mu
The-number 3 opposite-of- minus 2 equals the-number 5.

The sense in which plus is the opposite of minus is not a mathematical but rather a linguistic one; negated operators are defined only loosely.

la'e and lu'e can be used on operands with the usual semantics to get the referent of or a symbol for an operand. Likewise, a member of selma'o NAhE followed by bo serves to scalar-negate an operand, implying that some other operand would make the bridi true:

Example 18.142. 

li re su'i re du li na'ebo mu
The-number 2 plus 2 equals the-number non- 5.

2 + 2 = something other than 5.


The digits 0-9 have rafsi, and therefore can be used in making lujvo. Additionally, all the rafsi have CVC form and can stand alone or together as names:

Example 18.143. 

la .zel. poi gunta la .tebes. pu nanmu
Those-named Seven who attack that-named Thebes [past] are-men.

The Seven Against Thebes were men.


Of course, there is no guarantee that the name .zel. is connected with the number rafsi: an alternative which cannot be misconstrued is:

Example 18.144. 

la zemei poi gunta
Those-named-the Sevensome who attack
la .tebes. pu nanmu
that-named Thebes [past] are-men.

Certain other members of PA also have assigned rafsi: so'a , so'e , so'i , so'o , so'u , da'a , ro , su'e , su'o , pi , and ce'i. Furthermore, although the cmavo fi'u does not have a rafsi as such, it is closely related to the gismu frinu , meaning fraction ; therefore, in a context of numeric rafsi, you can use any of the rafsi for frinu to indicate a fraction slash.

A similar convention is used for the cmavo cu'o of selma'o MOI, which is closely related to cunso (probability); use a rafsi for cunso in order to create lujvo based on cu'o. The cmavo mei and moi of MOI have their own rafsi, two each in fact: mem / mei and mom / moi respectively.

The grammar of mekso as described so far imposes a rigid distinction between operators and operands. Some flavors of mathematics (lambda calculus, algebra of functions) blur this distinction, and Lojban must have a method of doing the same. An operator can be changed into an operand with ni'enu'a , which transforms the operator into a matching selbri and then the selbri into an operand.

To change an operand into an operator, we use the cmavo ma'o , already introduced as a means of changing a lerfu string such as fy. into an operator. In fact, ma'o can be followed by any mekso operand, using the elidable terminator te'u if necessary.

There is a potential semantic ambiguity in ma'o fy. [te'u] if fy. is already in use as a variable: it comes to mean the function whose value is always f . However, mathematicians do not normally use the same lerfu words or strings as both functions and variables, so this case should not arise in practice.

18.22. Four score and seven: a mekso problem

Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address begins with the words Four score and seven years ago. This section exhibits several different ways of saying the number four score and seven. (A score , for those not familiar with the term, is 20; it is analogous to a dozen for 12.) The trivial way:

Example 18.145. 

li bize
eight seven
87

Example 18.145 is mathematically correct, but sacrifices the spirit of the English words, which are intended to be complex and formal.

Example 18.146. 

li vo pi'i reno su'i ze
the-number four times twenty plus seven
4 × 20 + 7

Example 18.146 is also mathematically correct, but still misses something. Score is not a word for 20 in the same way that ten is a word for 10: it contains the implication of 20 objects. The original may be taken as short for Four score years and seven years ago. Thinking of a score as a twentysome rather than as 20 leads to:

Example 18.147. 

li mo'e voboi renomei
the-number [sumti-to-mex] four twentysomes
te'u su'i ze
[end-sumti-to-mex] plus seven

In Example 18.147 , voboi renomei is a sumti signifying four things each of which are groups of twenty; the mo'e and te'u then make this sumti into a number in order to allow it to be the operand of su'i.

Another approach is to think of score as setting a representation base. There are remnants of base-20 arithmetic in some languages, notably French, in which 87 is quatre-vingt-sept , literally four-twenties-seven. (This fact makes the Gettysburg Address hard to translate into French!) If score is the representation base, then we have:

Example 18.148. 

li vo pi'e ze ju'u reno
the-number four ; seven base 20
47 20

Overall, Example 18.147 probably captures the flavor of the English best. Example 18.145 and Example 18.146 are too simple, and Example 18.148 is too tricky. Nevertheless, all four examples are good Lojban. Pedagogically, these examples illustrate the richness of lojbau mekso: anything that can be said at all, can probably be said in more than one way.

18.23. mekso selma'o summary

Except as noted, each selma'o has only one cmavo.

BOI

elidable terminator for numerals and lerfu strings

BY

lerfu for variables and functions (see Section 17.11)

FUhA

reverse-Polish flag

GOhA

includes du (mathematical equality) and other non-mekso cmavo

JOhI

array flag

KUhE

elidable terminator for forethought mekso

LI

mekso articles ( li and me'o)

MAhO

make operand into operator

MOI

creates mekso selbri ( moi , mei , si'e , and cu'o , see Section 18.11)

MOhE

make sumti into operand

NAhU

make selbri into operator

NIhE

make selbri into operand

NUhA

make operator into selbri

PA

numbers (see Section 18.25)

PEhO

optional forethought mekso marker

TEhU

elidable terminator for NAhU, NIhE, MOhE, MAhO, and JOhI

VEI

left parenthesis

VEhO

right parenthesis

VUhU

operators (see Section 18.24)

XI

subscript flag

18.24. Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures

The operand structures specify what various operands (labeled a, b, c, ...) mean. The implied context is forethought, since only forethought operators can have a variable number of operands; however, the same rules apply to infix and RP uses of VUhU.

su'i

plus

(((a + b) + c) + ...)

pi'i

times

(((a × b) × c) × ...)

vu'u

minus

(((a − b) − c) − ...)

fe'i

divided by

(((a / b) / c) / ...)

ju'u

number base

numeral string a interpreted in the base b

pa'i

ratio

the ratio of a to b a:b

fa'i

reciprocal of/multiplicative inverse

1 / a

gei

scientific notation

b × (c [default 10] to the a power)

ge'a

null operator

(no operands)

de'o

logarithm

log a to base b (default 10 or e as appropriate)

te'a

to the power/exponential

a to the b power

fe'a

nth root of/inverse power

b th root of a (default square root: b = 2)

cu'a

absolute value/norm

| a |

ne'o

factorial

a!

pi'a

matrix row vector combiner

(all operands are row vectors)

sa'i

matrix column vector combiner

(all operands are column vectors)

ri'o

integral

integral of a with respect to b over range c

sa'o

derivative

derivative of a with respect to b of degree c (default 1)

fu'u

non-specific operator

(variable)

si'i

sigma (Σ) summation

summation of a using variable b over range c

va'a

negation of/additive inverse

-a

re'a

matrix transpose/dual

a *

18.25. Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers

  • Table 18.1.  Decimal digits

    no

    non

    0

    pa

    pav

    1

    re

    rel

    2

    ci

    cib

    3

    vo

    von

    4

    mu

    mum

    5

    xa

    xav

    6

    ze

    zel

    7

    bi

    biv

    8

    so

    soz

    9


  • Table 18.2.  Hexadecimal digits

    dau

    A/10

    fei

    B/11

    gai

    C/12

    jau

    D/13

    rei

    E/14

    vai

    F/15


  • Table 18.3.  Special numbers

    pai

    π

    ka'o

    imaginary i

    te'o

    exponential e

    ci'i

    infinity (∞)


  • Table 18.4.  Number punctuation

    cmavo rafsi description

    pi

    piz

    decimal point

    ce'i

    cez

    percentage

    fi'u

    fi'u (from frinu; see Section 18.20)

    fraction (not division)

    pi'e

    mixed-base point

    ma'u

    plus sign (not addition)

    ni'u

    minus sign (not subtraction)

    ki'o

    thousands comma

    ra'e

    repeating-decimal indicator

    ji'i

    approximation sign

    ka'o

    complex number separator


  • Table 18.5.  Indefinite numbers

    cmavo rafsi description

    ro

    rol

    all

    so'a

    soj

    almost all

    so'e

    sop

    most

    so'i

    sor , so'i

    many

    so'o

    sos

    several

    so'u

    sot

    few

    da'a

    daz

    all but


  • Table 18.6. Subjective numbers

    rau

    enough

    du'e

    too few

    mo'a

    too many


  • Table 18.7. Miscellaneous

    xo

    number question

    tu'o

    null operand


18.26. Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures

cmavo rafsi description

mei

mem , mei

x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3, [measured relative to the set x4/by standard x4]

moi

mom , moi

x1 is the (n)th member of set x2 when ordered by rule x3 [by standard x4]

si'e

x1 is an (n)th portion of mass x2 [by standard x3]

cu'o

cu'o

event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under conditions x2 [by standard x3]; the rafsi is borrowed from cunso ; see Section 18.20

va'e

x1 is at scale position (n) on the scale x2 [by standard x3]

Chapter 19. Putting it all together: notes on the structure of Lojban texts

The picture for chapter 19

19.1. Introductory

This chapter is incurably miscellaneous. It describes the cmavo that specify the structure of Lojban texts, from the largest scale (paragraphs) to the smallest (single words). There are fewer examples than are found in other chapters of this book, since the linguistic mechanisms described are generally made use of in conversation or else in long documents.

This chapter is also not very self-contained. It makes passing reference to a great many concepts which are explained in full only in other chapters. The alternative would be a chapter on text structure which was as complex as all the other chapters put together. Lojban is a unified language, and it is not possible to understand any part of it (in full) before understanding every part of it (to some degree).

19.2. Sentences: I

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

.i

I

sentence separator

Since Lojban is audio-visually isomorphic, there needs to be a spoken and written way of signaling the end of a sentence and the start of the following one. In written English, a period serves this purpose; in spoken English, a tone contour (rising or falling) usually does the job, or sometimes a long pause. Lojban uses a single separator: the cmavo .i (of selma'o I):

Example 19.1. 

mi klama le zarci .i do cadzu le bisli
I go-to the store. You walk-on the ice.

The word separator should be noted. .i is not normally used after the last sentence nor before the first one, although both positions are technically grammatical. .i signals a new sentence on the same topic, not necessarily by the same speaker. The relationship between the sentences is left vague, except in stories, where the relationship usually is temporal, and the following sentence states something that happened after the previous sentence.

Note that although the first letter of an English sentence is capitalized, the cmavo .i is never capitalized. In writing, it is appropriate to place extra space before .i to make it stand out better for the reader. In some styles of Lojban writing, every .i is placed at the beginning of a line, possibly leaving space at the end of the previous line.

An .i cmavo may or may not be used when the speaker of the following sentence is different from the speaker of the preceding sentence, depending on whether the sentences are felt to be connected or not.

An .i cmavo can be compounded with a logical or non-logical connective (a jek or joik), a modal or tense connective, or both: these constructs are explained in Section 9.8 , Section 10.16 , and Section 14.4. In all cases, the .i comes first in the compound. Attitudinals can also be attached to an .i if they are meant to apply to the whole sentence: see Section 13.9.

There exist a pair of mechanisms for binding a sequence of sentences closely together. If the .i (with or without connectives) is followed by bo (of selma'o BO), then the two sentences being separated are understood to be more closely grouped than sentences connected by .i alone.

Similarly, a group of sentences can be preceded by tu'e (of selma'o TUhE) and followed by tu'u (of selma'o TUhU) to fuse them into a single unit. A common use of tu'etu'u is to group the sentences which compose a poem: the title sentence would precede the group, separated from it by .i. Another use might be a set of directions, where each numbered direction might be surrounded by tu'etu'u and contain one or more sentences separated by .i. Grouping with tu'e and tu'u is analogous to grouping with ke and ke'e to establish the scope of logical or non-logical connectives (see Section 14.8).

19.3. Paragraphs: NIhO

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ni'o

NIhO

new topic

no'i

NIhO

old topic

da'o

DAhO

cancel cmavo assignments

The paragraph is a concept used in writing systems for two purposes: to indicate changes of topic, and to break up the hard-to-read appearance of large blocks of text on the page. The former function is represented in both spoken and written Lojban by the cmavo ni'o and no'i , both of selma'o NIhO. Of these two, ni'o is the more common. By convention, written Lojban is broken into paragraphs just before any ni'o or no'i , but a very long passage on a single topic might be paragraphed before an .i. On the other hand, it is conventional in English to start a new paragraph in dialogue when a new speaker starts, but this convention is not commonly observed in Lojban dialogues. Of course, none of these conventions affect meaning in any way.

A ni'o can take the place of an .i as a sentence separator, and in addition signals a new topic or paragraph. Grammatically, any number of ni'o cmavo can appear consecutively and are equivalent to a single one; semantically, a greater number of ni'o cmavo indicates a larger-scale change of topic. This feature allows complexly structured text, with topics, subtopics, and sub-subtopics, to be represented clearly and unambiguously in both spoken and written Lojban. However, some conventional differences do exist between ni'o in writing and in conversation.

In written text, a single ni'o is a mere discursive indicator of a new subject, whereas ni'oni'o marks a change in the context. In this situation, ni'oni'o implicitly cancels the definitions of all pro-sumti of selma'o KOhA as well as pro-bridi of selma'o GOhA. (Explicit cancelling is expressed by the cmavo da'o of selma'o DAhO, which has the free grammar of an indicator – it can appear almost anywhere.) The use of ni'oni'o does not affect indicators (of selma'o UI) or tense references, but ni'oni'oni'o , indicating a drastic change of topic, would serve to reset both indicators and tenses. (See Section 19.8 for a discussion of indicator scope.)

In spoken text, which is inherently less structured, these levels are reduced by one, with ni'o indicating a change in context sufficient to cancel pro-sumti and pro-bridi assignment. On the other hand, in a book, or in stories within stories such as The Arabian Nights , further levels may be expressed by extending the ni'o string as needed. Normally, a written text will begin with the number of ni'o cmavo needed to signal the largest scale division which the text contains. ni'o strings may be subscripted to label each context of discourse: see Section 19.6.

no'i is similar in effect to ni'o , but indicates the resumption of a previous topic. In speech, it is analogous to (but much shorter than) such English discursive phrases as But getting back to the point .... By default, the topic resumed is that in effect before the last ni'o. When subtopics are nested within topics, then no'i would resume the previous subtopic and no'ino'i the previous topic. Note that no'i also resumes tense and pro-sumti assignments dropped at the previous ni'o.

If a ni'o is subscripted, then a no'i with the same subscript is assumed to be a continuation of it. A no'i may also have a negative subscript, which would specify counting backwards a number of paragraphs and resuming the topic found thereby.

19.4. Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

zo'u

ZOhU

topic/comment separator

The normal Lojban sentence is just a bridi, parallel to the normal English sentence which has a subject and a predicate:

Example 19.2. 

mi klama le zarci

I went-to the market


In Chinese, the normal sentence form is different: a topic is stated, and a comment about it is made. (Japanese also has the concept of a topic, but indicates it by attaching a suffix; other languages also distinguish topics in various ways.) The topic says what the sentence is about:

Example 19.3. 

  • 这消息我知道了。

  • Zhè xiāoxī wǒ zhīdàole.

  • this news : I know [perfective]

  • As for this news, I knew it.

  • I've heard this news already.


The colon in the first two versions of Example 19.3 separate the topic ( this news) from the comment ( I know already).

Lojban uses the cmavo zo'u (of selma'o ZOhU) to separate topic (a sumti) from comment (a bridi):

Example 19.4. 

le nuzba zo'u mi co'i facki
The news : I [achievative] find-out.

Example 19.4 is the literal Lojban translation of Example 19.3. Of course, the topic-comment structure can be changed to a straightforward bridi structure:

Example 19.5. 

mi co'i facki le nuzba
I [perfective] find-out the news.

Example 19.5 means the same as Example 19.4 , and it is simpler. However, often the position of the topic in the place structure of the selbri within the comment is vague:

Example 19.6. 

le finpe zo'u citka
the fish : eat

Is the fish eating or being eaten? The sentence doesn't say. The Chinese equivalent of Example 19.6 is:

Example 19.7. 

  • 鱼吃

  • yú chī

  • fish: eat


which is vague in exactly the same way.

Grammatically, it is possible to have more than one sumti before zo'u. This is not normally useful in topic-comment sentences, but is necessary in the other use of zo'u : to separate a quantifying section from a bridi containing quantified variables. This usage belongs to a discussion of quantifier logic in Lojban (see Section 16.2), but an example would be:

Example 19.8. 

ro da poi prenu ku'o
For-all X which are-persons,
su'o de zo'u de patfu da
there-exists-a Y such-that Y is-the-father-of X.

Every person has a father.


The string of sumti before zo'u (called the prenex : see Section 16.2) may contain both a topic and bound variables:

Example 19.9. 

loi patfu ro da poi prenu ku'o
For-the-mass-of fathers for-all X which are-persons,
su'o de zo'u de patfu da
there-exists-a Y such-that Y is-the-father-of X.

As for fathers, every person has one.


To specify a topic which affects more than one sentence, wrap the sentences in tu'etu'u brackets and place the topic and the zo'u directly in front. This is the exception to the rule that a topic attaches directly to a sentence:

Example 19.10. 

loi jdini zo'u tu'e do ponse .inaja do djica [tu'u]
The-mass-of money : ( [if] you possess, then you want )

Money: if you have it, you want it.


Note: In Lojban, you do not want money ; you want to have money or something of the sort, as the x2 place of djica demands an event. As a result, the straightforward rendering of Example 19.9 without a topic is not:

Example 19.11. 

do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica ri
You possess money only-if you desire its-mere-existence.

where ri means loi jdini and is interpreted as the mere existence of money , but rather:

Example 19.12. 

do ponse loi jdini .inaja do djica tu'a ri
You possess money only-if you desire something-about it.

namely, the possession of money. But topic-comment sentences like Example 19.10 are inherently vague, and this difference between ponse (which expects a physical object in x2) and djica is ignored. See Example 19.45 for another topic/comment sentence.

The subject of an English sentence is often the topic as well, but in Lojban the sumti in the x1 place is not necessarily the topic, especially if it is the normal (unconverted) x1 for the selbri. Thus Lojban sentences don't necessarily have a subject in the English sense.

19.5. Questions and answers

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

xu

UI

truth question

ma

KOhA

sumti question

mo

GOhA

bridi question

xo

PA

number question

ji

A

sumti connective question

ge'i

GA

forethought connective question

gi'i

GIhA

bridi-tail connective question

gu'i

GUhA

tanru forethought connective question

je'i

JA

tanru connective question

pei

UI

attitude question

fi'a

FA

place structure question

cu'e

CUhE

tense/modal question

pau

UI

question premarker

Lojban questions are not at all like English questions. There are two basic types: truth questions, of the form Is it true that ... , and fill-in-the-blank questions. Truth questions are marked by preceding the bridi, or following any part of it specifically questioned, with the cmavo xu (of selma'o UI):

Example 19.13. 

xu do klama le zarci
[True-or-false?] You go-to the store

Are you going to the store/Did you go to the store?


(Since the Lojban is tenseless, either colloquial translation might be correct.) Truth questions are further discussed in Section 15.8.

Fill-in-the-blank questions have a cmavo representing some Lojban word or phrase which is not known to the questioner, and which the answerer is to supply. There are a variety of cmavo belonging to different selma'o which provide different kinds of blanks.

Where a sumti is not known, a question may be formed with ma (of selma'o KOhA), which is a kind of pro-sumti:

Example 19.14. 

ma klama le zarci
[What-sumti?] goes-to the store

Who is going to the store?


Of course, the ma need not be in the x1 place:

Example 19.15. 

do klama ma
You go-to [what-sumti?]

Where are you going?


The answer is a simple sumti:

Example 19.16. 

le zarci

The store.


A sumti, then, is a legal utterance, although it does not by itself constitute a bridi – it does not claim anything, but merely completes the open-ended claim of the previous bridi.

There can be two ma cmavo in a single question:

Example 19.17. 

ma klama ma

Who goes where?


and the answer would be two sumti, which are meant to fill in the two ma cmavo in order:

Example 19.18. 

mi le zarci
I, [to]-the store.

An even more complex example, depending on the non-logical connective fa'u (of selma'o JOI), which is like the English and ... respectively :

Example 19.19. 

ma fa'u ma klama ma fa'u ma

Who and who goes where and where, -respectively?


An answer might be

Example 19.20. 

la .djan. la .marcas. le zarci le briju
John, Marsha, the store, the office.

John and Marsha go to the store and the office, respectively.


(Note: A mechanical substitution of Example 19.20 into Example 19.19 produces an ungrammatical result, because * ... le zarci fa'u le briju is ungrammatical Lojban: the first le zarci has to be closed with its proper terminator ku , for reasons explained in Section 14.14. This effect is not important: Lojban behaves as if all elided terminators have been supplied in both question and answer before inserting the latter into the former. The exchange is grammatical if question and answer are each separately grammatical.)

Questions to be answered with a selbri are expressed with mo of selma'o GOhA, which is a kind of pro-bridi:

Example 19.21. 

la .lojban. mo
Lojban [what-selbri?]

What is Lojban?


Here the answerer is to supply some predicate which is true of Lojban. Such questions are extremely open-ended, due to the enormous range of possible predicate answers. The answer might be just a selbri, or might be a full bridi, in which case the sumti in the answer override those provided by the questioner. To limit the range of a mo question, make it part of a tanru.

Questions about numbers are expressed with xo of selma'o PA:

Example 19.22. 

do viska xo prenu
You saw [what-number?] persons.

How many people did you see?


The answer would be a simple number, another kind of non-bridi utterance:

Example 19.23. 

vomu
Forty-five.

Fill-in-the-blank questions may also be asked about: logical connectives (using cmavo ji of A, ge'i of GA, gi'i of GIhA, gu'i of GUhA, or je'i of JA, and receiving an ek, gihek, ijek, or ijoik as an answer) – see Section 14.13 ; attitudes (using pei of UI, and receiving an attitudinal as an answer) – see Section 13.10 ; place structures (using fi'a of FA, and receiving a cmavo of FA as an answer) – see Section 9.3 ; tenses and modals (using cu'e of CUhE, and receiving any tense or BAI cmavo as an answer) – see Section 9.6 and Chapter 10.

Questions can be marked by placing pau (of selma'o UI) before the question bridi. See Section 13.13 for details.

The full list of non-bridi utterances suitable as answers to questions is:

  • any number of sumti (with elidable terminator vau , see Chapter 6)

  • an ek or gihek (logical connectives, see Chapter 14)

  • a number, or any mathematical expression placed in parentheses (see Chapter 18)

  • a bare na negator (to negate some previously expressed bridi), or corresponding ja'a affirmer (see Chapter 15)

  • a relative clause (to modify some previously expressed sumti, see Chapter 8)

  • a prenex/topic (to modify some previously expressed bridi, see Chapter 16)

  • linked arguments (beginning with be or bei and attached to some previously expressed selbri, often in a description, see Section 5.7)

At the beginning of a text, the following non-bridi are also permitted:

  • one or more cmevla (to indicate direct address without doi , see Chapter 6)

  • indicators (to express a prevailing attitude, see Chapter 13)

  • nai (to vaguely negate something or other, see Section 15.7)

Where not needed for the expression of answers, most of these are made grammatical for pragmatic reasons: people will say them in conversation, and there is no reason to rule them out as ungrammatical merely because most of them are vague.

19.6. Subscripts: XI

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

xi

XI

subscript

The cmavo xi (of selma'o XI) indicates that a subscript (a number, a lerfu string, or a parenthesized mekso) follows. Subscripts can be attached to almost any construction and are placed following the construction (or its terminator word, which is generally required). They are useful either to extend the finite cmavo list to infinite length, or to make more refined distinctions than the standard cmavo list permits. The remainder of this section mentions some places where subscripts might naturally be used.

Lojban gismu have at most five places:

Example 19.24. 

mi cu klama le zarci   le zdani   le dargu   le karce
I   go to the market from the house via the road using the car.

Consequently, selma'o SE (which operates on a selbri to change the order of its places) and selma'o FA (which provides place number tags for individual sumti) have only enough members to handle up to five places. Conversion of Example 19.24 , using xe to swap the x1 and x5 places, would produce:

Example 19.25. 

le karce cu xe-klama le zarci
The car   is-a-transportation-means to the market
le zdani   le dargu   mi
from the house via the road for me.

And reordering of the place structures might produce:

Example 19.26. 

fo le dargu fi le zdani fa mi
Via the road, from the house, I,
fe le zarci fu le karce cu klama
to the market, using the car, go.

Example 19.24 to Example 19.26 all mean the same thing. But consider the lujvo nunkla , formed by applying the abstraction operator nu to klama :

Example 19.27. 

la'e di'u cu nunkla mi
The-referent-of the-previous-sentence is-an-event-of-going by me
le zarci   le zdani   le dargu   le karce
to the market from the house via the road using the car.

Example 19.27 shows that nunkla has six places: the five places of klama plus a new one (placed first) for the event itself. Performing transformations similar to that of Example 19.25 requires an additional conversion cmavo that exchanges the x1 and x6 places. The solution is to use any cmavo of SE with a subscript "6" ( Section 19.6):

Example 19.28. 

le karce cu sexixa nunkla mi
The car is-a-transportation-means-in-the-event-of-going by me
le zarci   le zdani
to the market from the house
le dargu la'edi'u
via the road is-an-event-which-is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence.

Likewise, a sixth place tag can be created by using any cmavo of FA with a subscript:

Example 19.29. 

fu le dargu fo le zdani fe mi
Via the road, from the house, by me,
fa la'edi'u
  is-an-event-which is-referred-to-by-the-last-sentence,
fi le zarci faxixa le karce cu nunkla
to the market, using the car, is-an-event-of-going.

Example 19.27 to Example 19.29 also all mean the same thing, and each is derived straightforwardly from any of the others, despite the tortured nature of the English glosses. In addition, any other member of SE or FA could be substituted into sexixa and faxixa without change of meaning: vexixa means the same thing as sexixa.

Lojban provides two groups of pro-sumti, both belonging to selma'o KOhA. The ko'a-series cmavo are used to refer to explicitly specified sumti to which they have been bound using goi. The da-series, on the other hand, are existentially or universally quantified variables. (These concepts are explained more fully in Chapter 16.) There are ten ko'a-series cmavo and 3 da-series cmavo available.

If more are required, any cmavo of the ko'a-series or the da-series can be subscripted:

Example 19.30. 

da xi vo
X sub 4

is the 4th bound variable of the 1st sequence of the da-series, and

Example 19.31. 

ko'i xi paso
something-3 sub 18

is the 18th free variable of the 3rd sequence of the ko'a-series. This convention allows 10 sequences of ko'a-type pro-sumti and 3 sequences of da-type pro-sumti, each with as many members as needed. Note that daxivo and dexivo are considered to be distinct pro-sumti, unlike the situation with sexixa and vexixa above. Exactly similar treatment can be given to the bu'a-series of selma'o GOhA and to the gismu pro-bridi broda , brode , brodi , brodo , and brodu.

Subscripts on lerfu words are used in the standard mathematical way to extend the number of variables:

Example 19.32. 

li xy.boixipa du li xy.boixire su'i xy.boixici
The-number x-sub-1 equals the-number x-sub-2 plus x-sub-3
x 1 = x 2 + x 3

and can be used to extend the number of pro-sumti as well, since lerfu strings outside mathematical contexts are grammatically and semantically equivalent to pro-sumti of the ko'a-series. (In Example 19.32 , note the required terminator boi after each xy. cmavo; this terminator allows the subscript to be attached without ambiguity.)

Names, which are similar to pro-sumti, can also be subscripted to distinguish two individuals with the same name:

Example 19.33. 

la .djan. xipa cusku lu mi'enai do li'u la .djan. xire
John1 expresses [quote] I-am-not you [unquote] to John2 .

Subscripts on tenses allow talking about more than one time or place that is described by the same general cmavo. For example, puxipa could refer to one point in the past, and puxire a second point (earlier or later).

You can place a subscript on the word ja'a , the bridi affirmative of selma'o NA, to express so-called fuzzy truths. The usual machinery for fuzzy logic (statements whose truth value is not merely true or false , but is expressed by a number in the range 0 to 1) in Lojban is the abstractor jei :

Example 19.34. 

li pimu jei mi ganra
The-number .5 is-the-truth-value-of my being-broad.

However, by convention we can attach a subscript to ja'a to indicate fuzzy truth (or to na if we change the amount):

Example 19.35. 

mi ja'a xipimu ganra
I truly sub-.5 am-broad

Finally, as mentioned in Section 19.2 , ni'o and no'i cmavo with matching subscripts mark the start and the continuation of a given topic respectively. Different topics can be assigned to different subscripts.

Other uses of subscripts will doubtless be devised in future.

19.7. Utterance ordinals: MAI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

mai

MAI

utterance ordinal, -thly

mo'o

MAI

higher order utterance ordinal

Numerical free modifiers, corresponding to English firstly , secondly , and so on, can be created by suffixing mai or mo'o of selma'o MAI to a number or a lerfu string. Here are some examples:

Example 19.36. 

mi klama pamai le zarci .e remai le zdani
I go-to (firstly) the store and (secondly) the house.

This does not imply that I go to the store before I go to the house: that meaning requires a tense. The sumti are simply numbered for convenience of reference. Like other free modifiers, the utterance ordinals can be inserted almost anywhere in a sentence without affecting its grammar or its meaning.

Any of the Lojban numbers can be used with MAI: romai , for example, means all-thly or lastly. Likewise, if you are enumerating a long list and have forgotten which number is wanted next, you can say ny.mai , or Nthly.

The difference between mai and mo'o is that mo'o enumerates larger subdivisions of a text; mai was designed for lists of numbered items, whereas mo'o was intended to subdivide structured works. If this chapter were translated into Lojban, it might number each section with mo'o : this section would then be introduced with zemo'o , or Section 7.

19.8. Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

fu'e

FUhE

open attitudinal scope

fu'o

FUhO

close attitudinal scope

Lojban has a complex system of attitudinals , words which indicate the speaker's attitude to what is being said. The attitudinals include indicators of emotion, intensity markers, discursives (which show the structure of discourse), and evidentials (which indicate how the speaker knows). Most of these words belong to selma'o UI; the intensity markers belong to selma'o CAI for historical reasons, but the two selma'o are grammatically identical. The individual cmavo of UI and CAI are discussed in Chapter 13 ; only the rules for applying them in discourse are presented here.

Normally, an attitudinal applies to the preceding word only. However, if the preceding word is a structural cmavo which begins or ends a whole construction, then that whole construction is affected by the attitudinal:

Example 19.37. 

mi viska le blanu .ia zdani [ku]
I see the blue [belief] house.

I see the house, which I believe to be blue.


Example 19.38. 

mi viska le blanu zdani .ia [ku]
I see the blue house [belief].

I see the blue thing, which I believe to be a house.


Example 19.39. 

mi viska le .ia blanu zdani [ku]
I see the [belief] blue house

I see what I believe to be a blue house.


Example 19.40. 

mi viska le blanu zdani ku .ia
I see (the blue house) [belief]

I see what I believe to be a blue house.


An attitudinal meant to cover a whole sentence can be attached to the preceding .i , expressed or understood:

Example 19.41. 

[.i] .ia mi viska le blanu zdani
[belief] I see the blue house.

I believe I see a blue house.


or to an explicit vau placed at the end of a bridi.

Likewise, an attitudinal meant to cover a whole paragraph can be attached to ni'o or no'i. An attitudinal at the beginning of a text applies to the whole text.

However, sometimes it is necessary to be more specific about the range of one or more attitudinals, particularly if the range crosses the boundaries of standard Lojban syntactic constructions. The cmavo fu'e (of selma'o FUhE) and fu'o (of selma'o FUhO) provide explicit scope markers. Placing fu'e in front of an attitudinal disconnects it from what precedes it, and instead says that it applies to all following words until further notice. The notice is given by fu'o , which can appear anywhere and cancels all in-force attitudinals. For example:

Example 19.42. 

mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor

I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.


Here, only the blanu zdani portion of the three-part tanru blanu zdani ponse is marked as a belief of the speaker. Naturally, the attitudinal scope markers do not affect the rules for interpreting multi-part tanru: blanu zdani groups first because tanru group from left to right unless overridden with ke or bo.

Other attitudinals of more local scope can appear after attitudinals marked by FUhE; these attitudinals are added to the globally active attitudinals rather than superseding them.

19.9. Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

lu

LU

begin quotation

li'u

LIhU

end quotation

lo'u

LOhU

begin error quotation

le'u

LEhU

end error quotation

Grammatically, quotations are very simple in Lojban: all of them are sumti, and they all mean something like the piece of text here quoted :

Example 19.43. 

mi pu cusku lu mi'e .djan. [li'u]
I [past] express [quote] I-am John [unquote]

I said, I'm John.


But in fact there are four different flavors of quotation in the language, involving six cmavo of six different selma'o. This being the case, quotation deserves some elaboration.

The simplest kind of quotation, exhibited in Example 19.43 , uses the cmavo lu (of selma'o LU) as the opening quotation mark, and the cmavo li'u (of selma'o LIhU) as the closing quotation mark. The text between lu and li'u must be a valid, parseable Lojban text. If the quotation is ungrammatical, so is the surrounding expression. The cmavo li'u is technically an elidable terminator, but it's almost never possible to elide it except at the end of text.

The cmavo lo'u (of selma'o LOhU) and le'u (of selma'o LEhU) are used to surround a quotation that is not necessarily grammatical Lojban. However, the text must consist of morphologically correct Lojban words (as defined in Chapter 4), so that the le'u can be picked out reliably. The words need not be meaningful, but they must be recognizable as cmavo, brivla, or cmevla. Quotation with lo'u is essential to quoting ungrammatical Lojban for teaching in the language, the equivalent of the * that is used in English to mark such errors:

Example 19.44. 

lo'u mi du do du la .djan. le'u
[quote] mi du do du la djan. [unquote]
na tergerna la .lojban.
is-not a-grammatical-structure in Lojban.

Example 19.44 is grammatical even though the embedded quotation is not. Similarly, lo'u quotation can quote fragments of a text which themselves do not constitute grammatical utterances:

Example 19.45. 

lu le mlatu cu viska le finpe li'u zo'u
[quote] le mlatu cu viska le finpe [unquote] :
lo'u viska le le'u cu selbasti
[quote] viska le [unquote] is-replaced-by
.ei lo'u viska lo le'u
[obligation!] [quote] viska lo [unquote].

In the sentence le mlatu viska le finpe , viska le should be replaced by viska lo.


Note the topic-comment formulation ( Section 19.4) and the indicator applying to the selbri only ( Section 19.8). Neither viska le nor viska lo is a valid Lojban utterance, and both require lo'u quotation.

Additionally, pro-sumti or pro-bridi in the quoting sentence can refer to words appearing in the quoted sentence when luli'u is used, but not when lo'u ... le'u is used:

Example 19.46. 

la .tcarlis. cusku lu le ninmu cu morsi li'u
Charlie says [quote] the woman is-dead [unquote].
.iku'i ri jmive
However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.

Charlie says The woman is dead , but she is alive.


In Example 19.46 , ri is a pro-sumti which refers to the most recent previous sumti, namely le ninmu. Compare:

Example 19.47. 

la .tcarlis. cusku lo'u le ninmu cu morsi le'u
Charlie says [quote] le ninmu cu morsi [unquote].
.iku'i ri jmive
However, the-last-mentioned is-alive.

Charlie says le ninmu cu morsi , but he is alive.


In Example 19.47 , ri cannot refer to the referent of the alleged sumti le ninmu , because le ninmu cu morsi is a mere uninterpreted sequence of Lojban words. Instead, ri ends up referring to the referent of the sumti la .tcarlis. , and so it is Charlie who is alive.

The metalinguistic erasers si , sa , and su , discussed in Section 19.13 , do not operate in text between lo'u and le'u. Since the first le'u terminates a lo'u quotation, it is not directly possible to have a lo'u quotation within another lo'u quotation. However, it is possible for a le'u to occur within a lo'u ... le'u quotation by preceding it with the cmavo zo , discussed in Section 19.10. Note that le'u is not an elidable terminator; it is required.

19.10. More on quotations: ZO, ZOI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

zo

ZO

quote single word

zoi

ZOI

non-Lojban quotation

la'o

ZOI

non-Lojban name

The cmavo zo (of selma'o ZO) is a strong quotation mark for the single following word, which can be any Lojban word whatsoever. Among other uses, zo allows a metalinguistic word to be referenced without having it act on the surrounding text. The word must be a morphologically legal (but not necessarily meaningful) single Lojban word; compound cmavo are not permitted. For example:

Example 19.48. 

zo si cu lojbo valsi

si is a Lojbanic word.


Since zo acts on a single word only, there is no corresponding terminator. Brevity, then, is a great advantage of zo , since the terminators for other kinds of quotation are rarely or never elidable.

The cmavo zoi (of selma'o ZOI) is a quotation mark for quoting non-Lojban text. Its syntax is zoi .X. text .X , where X is a Lojban word (called the delimiting word) which is separated from the quoted text by pauses, and which is not found in the written text or spoken phoneme stream. It is common, but not required, to use the lerfu word (of selma'o BY) which corresponds to the Lojban name of the language being quoted:

Example 19.49. 

zoi gy. John is a man .gy. cu glico jufra

John is a man is an English sentence.


where gy. stands for glico. Other popular choices of delimiting words are .kuot. , a cmevla which sounds like the English word quote , and the word zoi itself. Another possibility is a Lojban word suggesting the topic of the quotation.

Within written text, the Lojban written word used as a delimiting word may not appear, whereas within spoken text, the sound of the delimiting word may not be uttered. This leads to occasional breakdowns of audio-visual isomorphism: Example 19.50 is fine in speech but ungrammatical as written, whereas Example 19.51 is correct when written but ungrammatical in speech.

Example 19.50. 

mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi gy. gyrations .gy.

I know about the word which-is gyrations.


Example 19.51. 

mi djuno fi le valsi po'u zoi jai. gyrations .jai

I know about the word which-is gyrations.


The text gy. appears in the written word gyrations , whereas the sound represented in Lojban by jai appears in the spoken word gyrations. Such borderline cases should be avoided as a matter of good style.

It should be noted particularly that zoi quotation is the only way to quote rafsi, specifically CCV rafsi, because they are not Lojban words, and zoi quotation is the only way to quote things which are not Lojban words. (CVC and CVV rafsi look like cmevla and cmavo respectively, and so can be quoted using other methods.) For example:

Example 19.52. 

zoi ry. sku .ry. cu rafsi zo cusku

sku is a rafsi of cusku.


(A minor note on interaction between lo'u ... le'u and zoi : The text between lo'u and le'u should consist of Lojban words only. In fact, non-Lojban material in the form of a zoi quotation may also appear. However, if the word le'u is used either as the delimiting word for the zoi quotation, or within the quotation itself, the outer lo'u quotation will be prematurely terminated. Therefore, le'u should be avoided as the delimiting word in any zoi quotation.)

Lojban strictly avoids any confusion between things and the names of things:

Example 19.53. 

zo .bab. cmene la .bab.
The-word Bob is-the-name-of the-one-named Bob.

In Example 19.53 , zo .bab. is the word, whereas la .bab. is the thing named by the word. The cmavo la'e and lu'e (of selma'o LAhE) convert back and forth between references and their referents:

Example 19.54. 

zo .bab. cmene la'e zo .bab.
The-word Bob is-the-name-of the-referent-of the-word Bob .

Example 19.55. 

lu'e la .bab. cmene la .bab.
A-symbol-for Bob is-the-name-of Bob.

Example 19.53 through Example 19.55 all mean approximately the same thing, except for differences in emphasis. Example 19.56 is different:

Example 19.56. 

la .bab. cmene la .bab.

Bob is the name of Bob.


and says that Bob is both the name and the thing named, an unlikely situation. People are not names.

(In Example 19.53 through Example 19.54 , the name .bab. was separated from a preceding zo by a pause, thus: zo .bab.. The reason for this extra pause is that all Lojban names must be separated by pause from any preceding word. There are numerous other cmavo that may precede a name: of these, zo is one of the most common.)

The cmavo la'o also belongs to selma'o ZOI, and is mentioned here for completeness, although it does not signal the beginning of a quotation. Instead, la'o serves to mark non-Lojban names, especially the Linnaean binomial names (such as Homo sapiens) which are the internationally standardized names for species of animals and plants. Internationally known names which can more easily be recognized by spelling rather than pronunciation, such as Goethe , can also appear in Lojban text with la'o :

Example 19.57. 

la'o dy. Goethe .dy. cu me la'o ly. Homo sapiens .ly.

Goethe is a Homo sapiens.


Using la'o for all names rather than Lojbanizing, however, makes for very cumbersome text. A rough equivalent of la'o might be la me zoi.

19.11. Contrastive emphasis: BAhE

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

ba'e

BAhE

emphasize next word

za'e

BAhE

next word is nonce

English often uses strong stress on a word to single it out for contrastive emphasis, thus

Example 19.58. 

I saw George.


is quite different from

Example 19.59. 

I saw George.


The heavy stress on George (represented in writing by italics) indicates that I saw George rather than someone else. Lojban does not use stress in this way: stress is used only to help separate words (because every brivla is stressed on the penultimate syllable) and in names to match other languages' stress patterns. Note that many other languages do not use stress in this way either; typically word order is rearranged, producing something like

Example 19.60. 

It was George whom I saw.


In Lojban, the cmavo ba'e (of selma'o BAhE) precedes a single word which is to be emphasized:

Example 19.61. 

mi viska la ba'e .djordj.
I saw the-one-named [emphasis] George .

I saw George.


Note the pause before the cmevla djordj. , which serves to separate it unambiguously from the ba'e. Alternatively, the ba'e can be moved to a position before the la , which in effect emphasizes the whole construct la .djordj. :

Example 19.62. 

mi viska ba'e la .djordj.
I saw [emphasis] the-one-named George .

I saw George.


Marking a word with a cmavo of BAhE does not change the word's grammar in any way. Any word in a bridi can receive contrastive emphasis marking:

Example 19.63. 

ba'e mi viska la .djordj.

I, no one else, saw George.


Example 19.64. 

mi ba'e viska la .djordj.

I saw (not heard or smelled) George.


Emphasis on one of the structural components of a Lojban bridi can also be achieved by rearranging it into an order that is not the speaker's or writer's usual order. Any sumti moved out of place, or the selbri when moved out of place, is emphatic to some degree.

For completeness, the cmavo za'e should be mentioned, also of selma'o BAhE. It marks a word as possibly irregular, non-standard, or nonce (created for the occasion):

Example 19.65. 

mi klama la za'e .albeinias.
I go-to so-called Albania

marks a Lojbanization of an English name, where a more appropriate standard form might be something like la .ckiipyris. , reflecting the country's name in Albanian.

Before a lujvo or fu'ivla, za'e indicates that the word has been made up on the spot and may be used in a sense that is not found in the unabridged dictionary (when we have an unabridged dictionary!).

19.12. Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

to

TO

open parenthesis

to'i

TO

open editorial parenthesis

toi

TOI

close parenthesis

sei

SEI

metalinguistic bridi marker

The cmavo to and toi are discursive (non-mathematical) parentheses, for inserting parenthetical remarks. Any text whatsoever can go within the parentheses, and it is completely invisible to its context. It can, however, refer to the context by the use of pro-sumti and pro-bridi: any that have been assigned in the context are still assigned in the parenthetical remarks, but the reverse is not true.

Example 19.66. 

doi .lisas. mi djica le nu to doi .frank.
O Lisa, I desire the event-of ( O Frank,
ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu
[imperative] stop! ) you see the cat.

Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.


Example 19.66 implicitly redefines do within the parentheses: the listener is changed by doi .frank. When the context sentence resumes, however, the old listener, Lisa, is automatically restored.

There is another cmavo of selma'o TO: to'i. The difference between to and to'i is the difference between parentheses and square brackets in English prose. Remarks within to ... toi cmavo are implicitly by the same speaker, whereas remarks within to'i ... toi are implicitly by someone else, perhaps an editor:

Example 19.67. 

la .frank. cusku lu mi prami do to'isa'a do du la .djein. toi li'u

Frank expresses I love you [you = Jane]


The sa'a suffix is a discursive cmavo (of selma'o UI) meaning editorial insertion , and indicating that the marked word or construct (in this case, the entire bracketed remark) is not part of the quotation. It is required whenever the to'i ... toi remark is physically within quotation marks, at least when speaking to literal-minded listeners; the convention may be relaxed if no actual confusion results.

Note: The parser believes that parentheses are attached to the previous word or construct, because it treats them as syntactic equivalents of subscripts and other such so-called free modifiers. Semantically, however, parenthetical remarks are not necessarily attached either to what precedes them or what follows them.

The cmavo sei (of selma'o SEI) begins an embedded discursive bridi. Comments added with sei are called metalinguistic , because they are comments about the discourse itself rather than about the subject matter of the discourse. This sense of the term metalinguistic is used throughout this chapter, and is not to be confused with the sense language for expressing other languages.

When marked with sei , a metalinguistic utterance can be embedded in another utterance as a discursive. In this way, discursives which do not have cmavo assigned in selma'o UI can be expressed:

Example 19.68. 

la .frank. prami sei la .frank. gleki la .djein.

Frank loves (Frank is happy) Jane.


Using the happiness attitudinal, .ui , would imply that the speaker was happy. Instead, the speaker attributes happiness to Frank. It would probably be safe to elide the one who is happy, and say:

Example 19.69. 

la .frank. prami sei gleki la .djein.

Frank loves (he is happy) Jane.


The grammar of the bridi following sei has an unusual limitation: the sumti must either precede the selbri, or must be glued into the selbri with be and bei :

Example 19.70. 

la .frank. prami sei gleki be fa la .suzn. la .djein.

Frank loves (Susan is happy) Jane.


This restriction allows the terminator cmavo se'u to almost always be elided.

Since a discursive utterance is working at a higher level of abstraction than a non-discursive utterance, a non-discursive utterance cannot refer to a discursive utterance. Specifically, the various back-counting, reciprocal, and reflexive constructs in selma'o KOhA ignore the utterances at higher metalinguistic levels in determining their referent. It is possible, and sometimes necessary, to refer to lower metalinguistic levels. For example, the English he said in a conversation is metalinguistic. For this purpose, quotations are considered to be at a lower metalinguistic level than the surrounding context (a quoted text cannot refer to the statements of the one who quotes it), whereas parenthetical remarks are considered to be at a higher level than the context.

Lojban works differently from English in that the he said can be marked instead of the quotation. In Lojban, you can say:

Example 19.71. 

la .djan. cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
John expresses [quote] I go-to the store [unquote].

which literally claims that John uttered the quoted text. If the central claim is that John made the utterance, as is likely in conversation, this style is the most sensible. However, in written text which quotes a conversation, you don't want the he said or she said to be considered part of the conversation. If unmarked, it could mess up the anaphora counting. Instead, you can use:

Example 19.72. 

lu mi klama le zarci seisa'a
[quote] I go-to the store (
la .djan. cusku be dei li'u
John expresses this-sentence )[unquote]

I go to the store , said John.


And of course other orders are possible:

Example 19.73. 

lu seisa'a la .djan. cusku be dei mi klama le zarci

John said, I go to the store.


Example 19.74. 

lu mi klama seisa'a la djan cusku le zarci

I go , John said, to the store.


Note the sa'a following each sei , marking the sei and its attached bridi as an editorial insert, not part of the quotation. In a more relaxed style, these sa'a cmavo would probably be dropped.

The elidable terminator for sei is se'u (of selma'o SEhU); it is rarely needed, except to separate a selbri within the sei comment from an immediately following selbri (or component) outside the comment.

19.13. Erasure: SI, SA, SU

The following cmavo are discussed in this section:

si

SI

erase word

sa

SA

erase phrase

su

SU

erase discourse

The cmavo si (of selma'o SI) is a metalinguistic operator that erases the preceding word, as if it had never been spoken:

Example 19.75. 

ti gerku si mlatu
This is-a-dog, er, is-a-cat.

means the same thing as ti mlatu. Multiple si cmavo in succession erase the appropriate number of words:

Example 19.76. 

ta blanu zdani si si xekri zdani
That is-a-blue house, er, er, is-a-black house.

In order to erase the word zo , it is necessary to use three si cmavo in a row:

Example 19.77. 

zo .bab. se cmene zo si si si la .bab.
The-word Bob is-the-name-of the word si , er, er, Bob.

The first use of si does not erase anything, but completes the zo quotation. Two more si cmavo are then necessary to erase the first si and the zo.

Incorrect names can likewise cause trouble with si :

Example 19.78. 

mi tavla fo la .esperanto
I talk in-language that-named and-speranto,
si si .esperanton.
er, er, Esperanto.

The Lojbanized spelling .esperanto breaks up, as a consequence of the Lojban morphology rules (see Chapter 4) into two Lojban words, the cmavo .e and the undefined lujvo speranto. Therefore, two si cmavo are needed to erase them. Of course, .e speranto is not grammatical after la , but recognition of si is done before grammatical analysis.

Even more messy is the result of an incorrect zoi :

Example 19.79. 

mi cusku zoi fy. gy. .fy. si si si si zo .djan
I express [foreign] [quote] gy. [unquote], er, er, er, er, John .

In Example 19.79 , the first fy. is taken to be the delimiting word. The next word must be different from the delimiting word, and gy. , the Lojban name for the letter g , was chosen arbitrarily. Then the delimiting word must be repeated. For purposes of si erasure, the entire quoted text is taken to be a word, so four words have been uttered, and four more si cmavo are needed to erase them altogether. Similarly, a stray lo'u quotation mark must be erased with fy. le'u si si si , by completing the quotation and then erasing it all with three si cmavo.

What if less than the entire zo or zoi construct is erased? The result is something which has a loose zo or zoi in it, without its expected sequels, and which is incurably ungrammatical. Thus, to erase just the word quoted by zo , it turns out to be necessary to erase the zo as well:

Example 19.80. 

mi se cmene zo .djan. si si zo .djordj.
I am-named-by the-word John, er, er, the-word George.

The parser will reject zo .djan. si .djordj. , because in that context djordj. is a bare cmevla rather than a quoted word.

Note: The current machine parser does not implement si erasure.

As the above examples plainly show, precise erasures with si can be extremely hard to get right. Therefore, the cmavo sa (of selma'o SA) is provided for erasing more than one word. The cmavo following sa should be the starting marker of some grammatical construct. The effect of the sa is to erase back to and including the last starting marker of the same kind. For example:

Example 19.81. 

mi viska le sa .i mi cusku zo .djan.
I see the ... I say the-word John .

Since the word following sa is .i , the sentence separator, its effect is to erase the preceding sentence. So Example 19.81 is equivalent to:

Example 19.82. 

mi cusku zo .djan.


Another example, erasing a partial description rather than a partial sentence:

Example 19.83. 

mi viska le blanu .zdan. sa le xekri zdani
I see the blue hou ... the black house.

In Example 19.83 , le blanu .zdan. is ungrammatical, but clearly reflects the speaker's original intention to say le blanu zdani. However, the zdani was cut off before the end and changed into a cmevla. The entire ungrammatical le construct is erased and replaced by le xekri zdani.

Note: The current machine parser does not implement sa erasure. Getting sa right is even more difficult (for a computer) than getting si right, as the behavior of si is defined in terms of words rather than in terms of grammatical constructs (possibly incorrect ones) and words are conceptually simpler entities. On the other hand, sa is generally easier for human beings, because the rules for using it correctly are less finicky.

The cmavo su (of selma'o SU) is yet another metalinguistic operator that erases the entire text. However, if the text involves multiple speakers, then su will only erase the remarks made by the one who said it, unless that speaker has said nothing. Therefore susu is needed to eradicate a whole discussion in conversation.

Note: The current machine parser does not implement either su or susu erasure.

19.14. Hesitation: Y

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

.y.

Y

hesitation noise

Speakers often need to hesitate to think of what to say next or for some extra-linguistic reason. There are two ways to hesitate in Lojban: to pause between words (that is, to say nothing) or to use the cmavo .y. (of selma'o Y). This resembles in sound the English hesitation noise written uh (or er), but differs from it in the requirement for pauses before and after. Unlike a long pause, it cannot be mistaken for having nothing more to say: it holds the floor for the speaker. Since vowel length is not significant in Lojban, the y sound can be dragged out for as long as necessary. Furthermore, the sound can be repeated, provided the required pauses are respected.

Since the hesitation sound in English is outside the formal language, English-speakers may question the need for a formal cmavo. Speakers of other languages, however, often hesitate by saying (or, if necessary, repeating) a word ( este in some dialects of Spanish, roughly meaning that is), and Lojban's audio-visual isomorphism requires a written representation of all meaningful spoken behavior. Of course, .y. has no grammatical significance: it can appear anywhere at all in a Lojban sentence except in the middle of a word.

19.15. No more to say: FAhO

The following cmavo is discussed in this section:

fa'o

FAhO

end of text

The cmavo fa'o (of selma'o FAhO) is the usually omitted marker for the end of a text; it can be used in computer interaction to indicate the end of input or output, or for explicitly giving up the floor during a discussion. It is outside the regular grammar, and the machine parser takes it as an unconditional signal to stop parsing unless it is quoted with zo or with lo'u ... le'u. In particular, it is not used at the end of subordinate texts quoted with luli'u or parenthesized with to ... toi.

19.16. List of cmavo interactions

The following list gives the cmavo and selma'o that are recognized by the earliest stages of the parser, and specifies exactly which of them interact with which others. All of the cmavo are at least mentioned in this chapter. The cmavo are written in lower case, and the selma'o in UPPER CASE.

  • zo quotes the following word, no matter what it is.

  • si erases the preceding word unless it is a zo.

  • sa erases the preceding word and other words, unless the preceding word is a zo.

  • su is the same as sa , but erases more words.

  • lo'u quotes all following words up to a le'u (but not a zo le'u).

  • le'u is ungrammatical except at the end of a “lo'u quotation.

  • ZOI cmavo use the following word as a delimiting word, no matter what it is, but using le'u may create difficulties.

  • zei combines the preceding and the following word into a lujvo, but does not affect zo , si , sa , su , lo'u , ZOI cmavo, fa'o , and zei.

  • BAhE cmavo mark the following word, unless it is si , sa , or su , or unless it is preceded by zo. Multiple BAhE cmavo may be used in succession.

  • bu makes the preceding word into a lerfu word, except for zo , si , sa , su , lo'u , ZOI cmavo, fa'o , zei , BAhE cmavo, and bu. Multiple bu cmavo may be used in succession.

  • UI and CAI cmavo mark the previous word, except for zo , si , sa , su , lo'u , ZOI, fa'o , zei , BAhE cmavo, and bu. Multiple UI cmavo may be used in succession. A following nai is made part of the UI.

  • .y. , da'o , fu'e , and fu'o are the same as UI, but do not absorb a following nai.

19.17. List of elidable terminators

The following list shows all the elidable terminators of Lojban. The first column is the terminator, the second column is the selma'o that starts the corresponding construction, and the third column states what kinds of grammatical constructs are terminated. Each terminator is the only cmavo of its selma'o, which naturally has the same name as the cmavo.

be'o

BE

sumti attached to a tanru unit

boi

PA/BY

number or lerfu string

do'u

COI/DOI

vocative phrases

fe'u

FIhO

ad-hoc modal tags

ge'u

GOI

relative phrases

kei

NU

abstraction bridi

ke'e

KE

groups of various kinds

ku

LE/LA

description sumti

ku'e

PEhO

forethought mekso

ku'o

NOI

relative clauses

li'u

LU

quotations

lo'o

LI

number sumti

lu'u

LAhE/NAhE+BO

sumti qualifiers

me'u

ME

tanru units formed from sumti

nu'u

NUhI

forethought termsets

se'u

SEI/SOI

metalinguistic insertions

te'u

various

mekso conversion constructs

toi

TO

parenthetical remarks

tu'u

TUhE

multiple sentences or paragraphs

vau

(none)

simple bridi or bridi-tails

ve'o

VEI

mekso parentheses

Chapter 20. A catalogue of selma'o

The picture for chapter 20

20.1. A catalogue of selma'o

The following paragraphs list all the selma'o of Lojban, with a brief explanation of what each one is about, and reference to the chapter number where each is explained more fully. As usual, all selma'o names are given in capital letters (with “h” serving as the capital of “'”) and are the names of a representative cmavo, often the most important or the first in alphabetical order. One example is given of each selma'o: for selma'o which have several uses, the most common use is shown.

selma'o A ( Section 14.6)

Specifies a logical connection (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”), usually between sumti.

la .djan. a la .djein. klama le zarci
John and/or Jane goes-to the store

Also used to create vowel lerfu words when followed with “bu”.

selma'o BAI ( Section 9.6)

May be prefixed to a sumti to specify an additional place, not otherwise present in the place structure of the selbri, and derived from a single place of some other selbri.

mi tavla bau la .lojban.
I speak in-language Lojban.

selma'o BAhE ( Section 19.11)

Emphasizes the next single word, or marks it as a nonce word (one invented for the occasion).

la ba'e .djordj. klama le zarci
George goes-to the store.

It is George who goes to the store.

selma'o BE ( Section 5.7)

Attaches sumti which fill the place structure of a single unit making up a tanru. Unless otherwise indicated, the sumti fill the x2, x3, and successive places in that order. BE is most useful in descriptions formed with LE. See BEI , BEhO.

mi klama be ta   troci
I am-a (goer to that) type-of trier.

I try to go to that place.

selma'o BEI ( Section 5.7)

Separates multiple sumti attached by BE to a tanru unit.

mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o   troci
I am-a (goer to the store from the home ) type-of trier.

I try to go from the home to the market.

selma'o BEhO ( Section 5.7)

Elidable terminator for BE. Terminates sumti that are attached to a tanru unit.

mi klama be le zarci be'o   troci
I am-a (goer to the market ) type-of trier.

I try to go to the market.

selma'o BIhE ( Section 18.5)

Prefixed to a mathematical operator to mark it as higher priority than other mathematical operators, binding its operands more closely.

li ci bi'e pi'i vo su'i mu du li paze
The-number 3 [priority] times 4 plus 5 equals the-number 17.

3 × 4 + 5 = 17

selma'o BIhI ( Section 14.16)

Joins sumti or tanru units (as well as some other things) to form intervals. See GAhO.

mi ca sanli la .drezdn. bi'i la .frankfurt.
I [present] stand-on-surface Dresden [interval] Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt.

selma'o BO ( Section 5.3 , Section 15.6 , Section 18.17)

Joins tanru units, binding them together closely. Also used to bind logically or non-logically connected phrases, sentences, etc. BO is always high precedence and right-grouping.

ta cmalu nixli bo ckule
That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of school).

That is a small school for girls.

selma'o BOI ( Section 18.6)

Elidable terminator for PA or BY. Used to terminate a number (string of numeric cmavo) or lerfu string (string of letter words) when another string immediately follows.

li re du li vu'u vo boi re
The-number two equals the-number the-difference-of four and two.

selma'o BU ( Section 17.4)

A suffix which can be attached to any word, typically a word representing a letter of the alphabet or else a name, to make a word for a symbol or a different letter of the alphabet. In particular, attached to single-vowel cmavo to make words for vowel letters.

.abu .ebu .ibu .obu .ubu .ybu
a, e, i, o, u, y.

selma'o BY ( Section 17.2)

Words representing the letters of the Lojban alphabet, plus various shift words which alter the interpretation of other letter words. Terminated by BOI.

.abu tavla by le   la .ibymym. skami
A talks-to B about the of- IBM computers.

A talks to B about IBM computers.

selma'o CAI ( Section 13.4)

Indicates the intensity of an emotion: maximum, strong, weak, or not at all. Typically follows another particle which specifies the emotion.

.ei cai mi klama le zarci
[Obligation!] [Intense!] I go-to the market.

I must go to the market.

selma'o CAhA ( Section 10.19)

Specifies whether a bridi refers to an actual fact, a potential (achieved or not), or merely an innate capability.

ro datka ka'e flulimna
All ducks [capability] are-float-swimmers.

All ducks have the capability of swimming by floating.

selma'o CEI ( Section 7.5)

Assigns a selbri definition to one of the five pro-bridi gismu: “broda”, “brode”, “brodi”, “brodo”, or “brodu”, for later use.

ti slasi je mlatu bo cidja lante gacri cei broda

This is a plastic cat-food can cover, or thingy.

.i le crino broda cu barda .i le xunre broda cu cmalu

The green thingy is large. The red thingy is small.

selma'o CEhE ( Section 14.11 , Section 16.7)

Joins multiple terms into a termset. Termsets are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.

mi ce'e do pe'e je la .djan. ce'e la .djeimyz. cu pendo
I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James   are-friends-of.

I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.

selma'o CO ( Section 5.8)

When inserted between the components of a tanru, inverts it, so that the following tanru unit modifies the previous one.

mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani
I am-a-trier of-type (goer-to the market from the house).

I try to go to the market from the house.

selma'o COI ( Section 6.11 , Section 13.14)

When prefixed to a cmevla, description, or sumti, produces a vocative: a phrase which indicates who is being spoken to (or who is speaking). Vocatives are used in conversational protocols, including greeting, farewell, and radio communication. Terminated by DOhU. See DOI.

coi .djan.
Greetings, John.

selma'o CU ( Section 9.2)

Separates the selbri of a bridi from any sumti which precede it. Never strictly necessary, but often useful to eliminate various elidable terminators.

le gerku cu klama le zarci
The dog   goes-to the store.

selma'o CUhE ( Section 10.24)

Forms a question which asks when, where, or in what mode the rest of the bridi is true. See PU , CAhA , TAhE , and BAI.

do cu'e klama le zarci
You [When/Where?] go-to the store?

When are you going to the store?

selma'o DAhO ( Section 7.13)

Cancels the assigned significance of all sumti cmavo (of selma'o KOhA) and bridi cmavo (of selma'o GOhA).

selma'o DOI ( Section 13.14)

The non-specific vocative indicator. See DOhU.

doi .frank. mi tavla do
O Frank, I speak-to you.

Frank, I'm talking to you.

selma'o DOhU ( Section 13.14)

Elidable terminator for COI or DOI. Signals the end of a vocative.

coi do'u
Greetings [terminator]

Greetings, O unspecified one!

selma'o FA ( Section 9.3)

Prefix for a sumti, indicating which numbered place in the place structure the sumti belongs in; overrides word order.

fa mi cu klama fi la .atlantas.
x1= I   go x3= Atlanta
fe la .bastn. fo le dargu fu le karce
x2= Boston x4= the road x5= the car.

I go from Atlanta to Boston via the road using the car.

selma'o FAhA ( Section 10.2)

Specifies the direction in which, or toward which (when marked with MOhI) or along which (when prefixed by VEhA or VIhA) the action of the bridi takes place.

le nanmu zu'a batci le gerku
The man [left] bites the dog.

To my left, the man bites the dog.

selma'o FAhO ( Section 19.15)

A mechanical signal, outside the grammar, indicating that there is no more text. Useful in talking to computers.

selma'o FEhE ( Section 10.11)

Indicates that the following interval modifier (using TAhE , ROI , or ZAhO) refers to space rather than time.

ko vi'i fe'e di'i sombo le gurni
You-imperative [1-dimensional] [space] [regularly] sow the grain.

Sow the grain in a line and evenly!

selma'o FEhU ( Section 9.5)

Elidable terminator for FIhO. Indicates the end of an ad hoc modal tag: the tagged sumti immediately follows.

mi viska do fi'o kanla [fe'u] le zunle
I see you [modal] eye : the left-thing

I see you with the left eye.

selma'o FIhO ( Section 9.5)

When placed before a selbri, transforms the selbri into a modal tag, grammatically and semantically equivalent to a member of selma'o BAI. Terminated by FEhU.

mi viska do fi'o kanla le zunle
I see you with eye the left-thing

I see you with my left eye.

selma'o FOI ( Section 17.6)

Signals the end of a compound alphabet letter word that begins with TEI. Not an elidable terminator.

tei .ebu .akut. bu foi
( “e” “acute” )

the letter “e” with an acute accent

selma'o FUhA ( Section 18.16)

Indicates that the following mathematical expression is to be interpreted as reverse Polish (RP), a mode in which mathematical operators follow their operands.

li fu'a reboi re[boi] su'i du li vo
the-number [RP!] two, two, plus equals the-number four

2 + 2 = 4

selma'o FUhE ( Section 19.8)

Indicates that the following indicator(s) of selma'o UI affect not the preceding word, as usual, but rather all following words until a FUhO.

mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor

I see the owner of a blue house, or what I believe to be one.

selma'o FUhO ( Section 19.8)

Cancels all indicators of selma'o UI which are in effect.

mi viska le fu'e .ia blanu zdani fu'o ponse
I see the [start] [belief] blue house [end] possessor.

I see the owner of what I believe to be a blue house.

selma'o GA ( Section 14.5)

Indicates the beginning of two logically connected sumti, bridi-tails, or various other things. Logical connections include “both ... and”, “either ... or”, “if ... then”, and so on. See GI.

ga la .djan. nanmu gi la .djeimyz. ninmu

Either John is a man or James is a woman (or both).

selma'o GAhO ( Section 14.16)

Specifies whether an interval specified by BIhI includes or excludes its endpoints. Used in pairs before and after the BIhI cmavo, to specify the nature of both the left- and the right-hand endpoints.

mi ca sanli la .drezdn.
I [present] stand Dresden
ga'o bi'i ga'o la .frankfurt.
[inclusive] [interval] [inclusive] Frankfurt.

I am standing between Dresden and Frankfurt, inclusive of both.

selma'o GEhU ( Section 8.3)

Elidable terminator for GOI. Marks the end of a relative phrase. See KUhO.

la .djan. goi ko'a ge'u blanu
John (referred to as it-1 ) is-blue.

selma'o GI ( Section 14.5)

Separates two logically or non-logically connected sumti, tanru units, bridi-tails, or other things, when the prefix is a forethought connective involving GA , GUhA , or JOI.

ge la .djan. nanmu gi la .djeimyz. ninmu

(It is true that) both John is a man and James is a woman.

selma'o GIhA ( Section 14.3)

Specifies a logical connective (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”) between two bridi-tails: a bridi-tail is a selbri with any associated following sumti, but not including any preceding sumti.

mi klama le zarci gi'e nelci la .djan.
I go-to the market and like John.

selma'o GOI ( Section 8.3)

Specifies the beginning of a relative phrase, which associates a subordinate sumti (following) to another sumti (preceding). Terminated by GEhU See NOI.

la .djan. goi ko'a cu blanu
John (referred to as it-1)   is-blue.

selma'o GOhA ( Section 7.6)

A general selma'o for all cmavo which can take the place of brivla. There are several groups of these.

A: mi klama le zarci

B: mi go'i

A: I'm going to the market.

B: Me, too.

selma'o GUhA ( Section 14.3)

Indicates the beginning of two logically connected tanru units. Takes the place of GA when forming logically-connected tanru. See GI.

la .alis. gu'e ricfu gi blanu
Alice is both rich and blue.

selma'o I ( Section 19.2)

Separates two sentences from each other.

mi klama le zarci .i mi klama le zdani
I go-to the market . I go-to the house.

selma'o JA ( Section 14.3)

Specifies a logical connection (e.g. “and”, “or”, “if”) between two tanru units, mathematical operands, tenses, or abstractions.

ti blanu je zdani
This is-blue and a-house.

selma'o JAI ( Section 9.12)

When followed by a tense or modal, creates a conversion operator attachable to a selbri which exchanges the modal place with the x1 place of the selbri. When alone, is a conversion operator exchanging the x1 place of the selbri (which should be an abstract sumti) with one of the places of the abstracted-over bridi.

mi jai gau galfi le bitmu se skari
I am-the-actor-in modifying the wall color.

I act so as to modify the wall color.

I change the color of the wall.

selma'o JOI ( Section 14.14)

Specifies a non-logical connection (e.g. together-with-as-mass, -set, or -sequence) between two sumti, tanru units, or various other things. When immediately followed by GI , provides forethought non-logical connection analogous to GA.

la .djan. joi la .alis. cu bevri le pipno
John massed-with Alice   carry the piano.

selma'o JOhI ( Section 18.15)

Indicates that the following mathematical operands (a list terminated by TEhU) form a mathematical vector (one-dimensional array).

li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du
The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals
li jo'i voboi xaboi
the-number array( four, six).

(1,2) + (3,4) = (4,6)

selma'o KE ( Section 5.5)

Groups everything between itself and a following KEhE for purposes of logical connection, tanru construction, or other purposes. KE and KEhE are not used for mathematical (see VEI and VEhO) or discursive (see TO and TOI) purposes.

ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.

That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.

selma'o KEI ( Section 11.1)

Elidable terminator for NU. Marks the end of an abstraction bridi.

la .djan. cu nu sonci kei djica
John   is-an-(event-of being-a-soldier ) type-of desirer.

John wants to be a soldier.

selma'o KEhE ( Section 5.5)

Elidable terminator for KE. Marks the end of a grouping.

ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule
That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.

That is a school for girls who are pretty in their littleness.

selma'o KI ( Section 10.13)

When preceded by a tense or modal, makes it “sticky”, so that it applies to all further bridi until reset by another appearance of KI. When alone, eliminates all sticky tenses.

selma'o KOhA ( Section 7.1)

A general selma'o which contains all cmavo which can substitute for sumti. These cmavo are divided into several groups.

le blanu zdani goi ko'a cu barda
The blue house (referred to as it-1)   is-big.
.i ko'a na cmamau ti
  It-1 is-not smaller-than this-thing.

selma'o KU ( Section 6.2 , Section 10.1)

Elidable terminator for LE and some uses of LA. Indicates the end of a description sumti. Also used after a tense or modal to indicate that no sumti follows, and in the compound NA + KU to indicate natural language-style negation.

le prenu ku le zdani ku klama
The person , to the house , goes.

The person goes to the house.

selma'o KUhE ( Section 18.6)

Elidable terminator for PEhO : indicates the end of a forethought mathematical expression (one in which the operator precedes the operands).

li pe'o su'i reboi reboi re[boi] ku'e
The-number [forethought] the-sum-of two two two [end]
du li xa
equals the-number six.

selma'o KUhO ( Section 8.1)

Elidable terminator for NOI. Indicates the end of a relative clause.

le zdani poi blanu ku'o barda
The house that( is-blue ) is-big.

selma'o LA ( Section 6.2)

Descriptors which change name words (or selbri) into sumti which identify people or things by name. Similar to LE. May be terminated with KU if followed by a description selbri.

la .kikeros. du la .tulis.
Cicero is Tully.

selma'o LAU ( Section 17.14)

Combines with the following alphabetic letter to represent a single marker: change from lower to upper case, change of font, punctuation, etc.

tau sy .ibu
[single-shift] “s” “i”

Si (chemical symbol for silicon)

selma'o LAhE ( Section 6.10)

Qualifiers which, when prefixed to a sumti, change it into another sumti with related meaning. Qualifiers can also consist of a cmavo from selma'o NAhE plus BO. Terminated by LUhU.

mi viska la'e zoi .kuot. A Tale of Two Cities .kuot
I see that-represented-by the-text A Tale of Two Cities ”.

I see the book “A Tale of Two Cities”.

selma'o LE ( Section 6.2)

Descriptors which make selbri into sumti which describe or specify things that fit into the x1 place of the selbri. Terminated by KU. See LA.

le gerku cu klama le zdani
The dog   goes-to the house.

selma'o LEhU ( Section 19.9)

Indicates the end of a quotation begun with LOhU. Not an elidable terminator.

lo'u mi du do du mi le'u cu na lojbo drani
[quote] mi du do du mi [unquote]   is-not Lojbanically correct.

“mi du do du mi” is not correct Lojban.

selma'o LI ( Section 18.5)

Descriptors which change numbers or other mathematical expressions into sumti which specify numbers or numerical expressions. Terminated by LOhO.

li re vu'u re na du li vo su'i vo
The-number 2 minus 2 not equals the-number 4 plus 4.

2 - 2 ≠ 4 + 4

selma'o LIhU ( Section 19.9)

Elidable terminator for LU. Indicates the end of a text quotation.

mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
I express [quote] I go-to the market [end-quote].

selma'o LOhO ( Section 18.17)

Elidable terminator for LI. Indicates the end of a mathematical expression used in a LI description.

li vo lo'o li ci lo'o cu zmadu
The-number 4 [end-number], the-number 3 [end-number],   is-greater.

4 > 3

selma'o LOhU ( Section 19.9)

Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is grammatical as long as the quoted material consists of Lojban words, whether they form a text or not. Terminated by LEhU.

do cusku lo'u mi du do du ko'a le'u
You express [quote] mi du do du ko'a [end-quote].

You said, “mi du do du ko'a”.

selma'o LU ( Section 19.9)

Indicates the beginning of a quotation (a sumti) which is grammatical only if the quoted material also forms a grammatical Lojban text. Terminated by LIhU.

mi cusku lu mi klama le zarci li'u
I express [quote] I go-to the market [end-quote].

selma'o LUhU ( Section 6.10)

Elidable terminator for LAhE and NAhE + BO. Indicates the end of a qualified sumti.

mi viska la'e lu barda gerku li'u lu'u
I see the-referent-of [quote] big dog [end-quote] [end-ref]

I saw “Big Dog” [not the words, but a book or movie].

selma'o MAI ( Section 18.19 , Section 19.1)

When suffixed to a number or string of letter words, produces a free modifier which serves as an index number within a text.

pamai mi pu klama le zarci
1-thly, I [past] go-to the market.

First, I went to the market.

selma'o MAhO ( Section 18.6)

Produces a mathematical operator from a letter or other operand. Terminated by TEhU. See VUhU.

ma'o fy. boi xy.
[operator] f   x

f(x)

selma'o ME ( Section 5.10 , Section 18.1)

Produces a tanru unit from a sumti, which is applicable to the things referenced by the sumti. Terminated by MEhU.

ta me la .ford. karce
That is-a-Ford-type car

That's a Ford car.

selma'o MEhU ( Section 5.11)

The elidable terminator for ME. Indicates the end of a sumti converted to a tanru unit.

ta me mi me'u zdani

That's a me type of house.

selma'o MOI ( Section 5.11 , Section 18.18)

Suffixes added to numbers or other quantifiers to make various numerically-based selbri.

la .djan. joi la .frank. cu bruna remei
John in-a-mass-with Frank   are-a-brother type-of twosome.

John and Frank are two brothers.

selma'o MOhE ( Section 18.18)

Produces a mathematical operand from a sumti; used to make dimensioned units. Terminated by TEhU.

li mo'e re ratcu su'i mo'e re ractu
The-number [operand] two rats plus [operand] two rabbits
cu du li mo'e vo danlu
  equals the-number [operand] four animals.

2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals.

selma'o MOhI ( Section 10.8)

A tense flag indicating movement in space, in a direction specified by a following FAhA cmavo.

le verba mo'i ri'u cadzu le bisli
The child [movement] [right] walks-on the ice.

The child walks toward my right on the ice.

selma'o NA ( Section 14.3 , Section 15.7)

Contradictory negators, asserting that a whole bridi is false (or true).

mi na klama le zarci

It is not true that I go to the market.

Also used to construct logical connective compound cmavo.

selma'o NAI ( Section 14.3 , Section 15.7)

Negates the previous word, but can only be used with certain selma'o as specified by the grammar.

selma'o NAhE ( Section 15.4)

Scalar negators, modifying a selbri or a sumti to a value other than the one stated, the opposite of the one stated, etc. Also used with following BO to construct a sumti qualifier; see LAhE.

ta na'e blanu zdani
That is-a-non- blue house.

That is a house which is other than blue.

selma'o NAhU ( Section 18.18)

Creates a mathematical operator from a selbri. Terminated by TEhU. See VUhU.

li na'u tanjo te'u
The-number the-operator( tangent )
vei pai fe'i re [ve'o] du li ci'i
( π / 2 ) = the-number infinity.

tan(π/2) = ∞

selma'o NIhE ( Section 18.18)

Creates a mathematical operand from a selbri, usually a “ ni ” abstraction. Terminated by TEhU.

li ni'e ni clani [te'u] pi'i
The-number   quantity-of length   times
ni'e ni ganra [te'u] pi'i
  quantity-of width   times
ni'e ni condi te'u du li ni'e ni canlu
  quantity-of depth   equals the-number   quantity-of volume.

Length × Width × Depth = Volume

selma'o NIhO ( Section 19.3)

Marks the beginning of a new paragraph, and indicates whether it contains old or new subject matter.

selma'o NOI ( Section 8.1)

Introduces relative clauses. The following bridi modifies the preceding sumti. Terminated by KUhO. See GOI.

le zdani poi blanu cu cmalu
The house which is-blue   is-small.

selma'o NU ( Section 11.1)

Abstractors which, when prefixed to a bridi, create abstraction selbri. Terminated by KEI.

la .djan. cu djica le nu sonci [kei]
John   desires the event-of being-a-soldier.

selma'o NUhA ( Section 18.19)

Creates a selbri from a mathematical operator. See VUhU.

li ni'umu cu nu'a va'a li ma'umu
The-number -5   is-the-negation-of the-number +5

selma'o NUhI ( Section 14.11 , Section 16.7)

Marks the beginning of a termset, which is used to make simultaneous claims involving two or more different places of a selbri. Terminated by NUhU.

mi klama nu'i ge le zarci   le briju
I go [start] both to the market from the office
nu'u gi le zdani   le ckule [nu'u]
[joint] and to the house from the school.

selma'o NUhU ( Section 14.11)

Elidable terminator for NUhI. Marks the end of a termset.

mi klama nu'i ge le zarci   le briju
I go [start] both to the market from the office
nu'u gi le zdani   le ckule [nu'u]
[joint] and to the house from the school.

selma'o PA ( Section 18.2)

Digits and related quantifiers (some, all, many, etc.). Terminated by BOI.

mi speni re ninmu
I am-married-to two women.

selma'o PEhE ( Section 14.11)

Precedes a logical or non-logical connective that joins two termsets. Termsets (see CEhE) are used to associate several terms for logical connectives, for equal quantifier scope, or for special constructs in tenses.

mi ce'e do pe'e je la .djan. ce'e la .djeimyz. cu pendo
I [,] you [joint] and John [,] James   are-friends-of.

I am a friend of you, and John is a friend of James.

selma'o PEhO ( Section 18.6)

An optional signal of forethought mathematical operators, which precede their operands. Terminated by KUhE.

li vo du li pe'o su'i reboi re
The-number four equals the-number [forethought] sum-of two two.

selma'o PU ( Section 10.4)

Specifies simple time directions (future, past, or neither).

mi pu klama le zarci
I [past] go-to the market.

I went to the market.

selma'o RAhO ( Section 7.6)

The pro-bridi update flag: changes the meaning of sumti implicitly attached to a pro-bridi (see GOhA) to fit the current context rather than the original context.

A: mi ba lumci le mi karce

B: mi go'i

A: mi ba lumci le mi karce

B: mi go'i ra'o

A: I [future] wash my car.

B: I do-the-same-thing (i.e. wash A's car).

A: I [future] wash my car.

B: I do-the-corresponding-thing (i.e. wash B's car).

selma'o ROI ( Section 10.9)

When suffixed to a number, makes an extensional tense (e.g. once, twice, many times).

mi reroi klama le zarci
I twice go-to the market.

selma'o SA ( Section 19.13)

Erases the previous phrase or sentence.

mi klama sa do klama le zarci
I go, er, you go-to the market.

selma'o SE ( Section 5.11 , Section 9.4)

Converts a selbri, rearranging the order of places by exchanging the x1 place with a specified numbered place.

le zarci cu se klama mi
The market   is-gone-to-by me.

Also used in constructing connective and modal compound cmavo.

selma'o SEI ( Section 19.12)

Marks the beginning of metalinguistic insertions which comment on the main bridi. Terminated by SEhU.

la .frank. prami sei gleki [se'u] la .djein.
Frank loves ( [he] is-happy ) Jane.

selma'o SEhU ( Section 19.12)

Elidable terminator for SEI and SOI. Ends metalinguistic insertions.

la .frank. prami sei gleki se'u la .djein.
Frank loves ( [he] is-happy ) Jane.

selma'o SI ( Section 19.13)

Erases the previous single word.

mi si do klama le zarci
I, er, you go-to the market.

selma'o SOI ( Section 7.8)

Marks reciprocity between two sumti (like “vice versa” in English).

mi prami do soi mi
I love you [reciprocally] me.

I love you and vice versa.

selma'o SU ( Section 19.13)

Closes and erases the entire previous discourse.

selma'o TAhE ( Section 10.9)

A tense modifier specifying frequencies within an interval of time or space (regularly, habitually, etc.).

le verba ta'e klama le ckule
The child habitually goes-to the school.

selma'o TEI ( Section 17.6)

Signals the beginning of a compound letter word, which acts grammatically like a single letter. Compound letter words end with the non-elidable selma'o FOI.

tei .ebu .akut. bu foi
( “e” “acute” )

the letter “e” with an acute accent

selma'o TEhU ( Section 18.15)

Elidable terminator for JOhI , MAhO , MOhE , NAhU , or NIhE. Marks the end of a mathematical conversion construct.

li jo'i paboi reboi te'u su'i jo'i ciboi voboi du
The-number array( one, two ) plus array( three, four) equals
li jo'i voboi xaboi
the-number array( four, six).

(1,2) + (3,4) = (4,6)

selma'o TO ( Section 19.12)

Left discursive parenthesis: allows inserting a digression. Terminated by TOI.

doi .lisas. mi djica le nu
O Lisa, I desire the event-of
to doi .frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu
( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see the cat.

Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.

selma'o TOI ( Section 19.12)

Elidable terminator for TO. The right discursive parenthesis.

doi .lisas. mi djica le nu
O Lisa, I desire the event-of
to doi .frank. ko sisti toi do viska le mlatu
( O Frank, [imperative] stop! ) you see the cat.

Lisa, I want you to (Frank! Stop!) see the cat.

selma'o TUhE ( Section 19.2)

Groups multiple sentences or paragraphs into a logical unit. Terminated by TUhU.

lo xagmau zo'u tu'e ganai cidja gi citno
Some best : [start] If food, then new.
.i ganai vanju gi tolci'o [tu'u]
  If wine, then old.

As for what is best: if food, then new [is best]; if wine, then old [is best].

selma'o TUhU ( Section 19.2)

Elidable terminator for TUhE. Marks the end of a multiple sentence group.

selma'o UI ( Section 13.1)

Particles which indicate the speaker's emotional state or source of knowledge, or the present stage of discourse.

.ui la .djan. klama
[Happiness!] John is-coming.

Hurrah! John is coming!

selma'o VA ( Section 10.2)

A tense indicating distance in space (near, far, or neither).

le nanmu va batci le gerku
The man [medium-distance] bites the dog.

Over there the man is biting the dog.

selma'o VAU ( Section 14.9)

Elidable terminator for a simple bridi, or for each bridi-tail of a GIhA logical connection.

mi dunda le cukta [vau] gi'e
I (give the book ) and
lebna lo jdini vau do [vau]
(take some money ) to/from you.

selma'o VEI ( Section 18.5)

Left mathematical parenthesis: groups mathematical operations. Terminated by VEhO.

li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o
The-number ( “n” plus one )
pi'i vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du
times ( “n” plus one ) equals
li ny. [bi'e] te'a re
the-number n [priority] power two
su'i re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa
plus two [priority] times “n” plus 1.

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n 2 + 2n + 1

selma'o VEhA ( Section 10.5)

A tense indicating the size of an interval in space (long, medium, or short).

selma'o VEhO ( Section 19.5)

Elidable terminator for VEI : right mathematical parenthesis.

li vei ny. su'i pa ve'o pi'i
The-number ( “n” plus one ) times
vei ny. su'i pa [ve'o] du
( “n” plus one ) equals
li ny. [bi'e] te'a re su'i
the-number n [priority] power two plus
re bi'e pi'i ny. su'i pa
two [priority] times “n” plus 1.

(n + 1)(n + 1) = n 2 + 2n + 1

selma'o VIhA ( Section 10.7)

A tense indicating dimensionality in space (line, plane, volume, or space-time interval).

le verba ve'a
The child [medium-space-interval]
vi'a cadzu le bisli
[2-dimensional] walks-on the ice.

In a medium-sized area, the child walks on the ice.

selma'o VUhO ( Section 8.8)

Attaches relative clauses or phrases to a whole (possibly connected) sumti, rather than simply to the leftmost portion of the sumti.

la .frank. ce la .djordj. vu'o noi gidva cu zvati le kumfa
Frank [in-set-with] George , which are-guides , are-in the room.

Frank and George, who are guides, are in the room.

selma'o VUhU ( Section 18.5)

Mathematical operators (e.g. +, −). See MAhO.

li mu vu'u re du li ci
The-number 5 minus 2 equals the-number 3.

5 − 2 = 3

selma'o XI ( Section 18.13)

The subscript marker: the following number or lerfu string is a subscript for whatever precedes it.

xy. xi re
x sub 2

x 2

selma'o Y ( Section 19.14)

Hesitation noise: content-free, but holds the floor or continues the conversation. It is different from silence in that silence may be interpreted as having nothing more to say.

doi .y. .y. .djan
O, uh, uh, John!

selma'o ZAhO ( Section 10.10)

A tense modifier specifying the contour of an event (e.g. beginning, ending, continuing).

mi pu'o damba
I [prospective] fight.

I'm on the verge of fighting.

selma'o ZEI ( Section 4.6)

A morphological glue word, which joins the two words it stands between into the equivalent of a lujvo.

ta xy. zei kantu kacma
That is-an-(X ray) camera.

That is an X-ray camera.

selma'o ZEhA ( Section 10.5)

A tense indicating the size of an interval in time (long, medium, or short).

mi pu ze'i citka
I [past] [short-interval] eat.

I ate for a little while.

selma'o ZI ( Section 10.4)

A tense indicating distance in time (a long, medium or short time ago or in the future).

mi pu zi citka
I [past] [short-distance] eat.

I ate a little while ago.

selma'o ZIhE ( Section 8.4)

Joins multiple relative phrases or clauses which apply to the same sumti. Although generally translated with “and”, it is not considered a logical connective.

mi ponse pa gerku ku poi blabi
I own one dog   such-that it-is-white
zi'e noi mi prami ke'a
and such-that-incidentally I love it.

I own a dog that is white and which, incidentally, I love.

I own a white dog, which I love.

selma'o ZO ( Section 19.10)

Single-word quotation: quotes the following single Lojban word.

zo si cu lojbo valsi
The-word “si”   is-a-Lojbanic word.

selma'o ZOI ( Section 19.10)

Non-Lojban quotation: quotes any text using a delimiting word (which can be any single Lojban word) placed before and after the text. The delimiting word must not appear in the text, and must be separated from the text by pauses.

zoi .kuot. Socrates is mortal .kuot. cu glico jufra
The-text Socrates is mortal   is-an-English sentence.

selma'o ZOhU ( Section 16.2 , Section 19.4)

Separates a logical prenex from a bridi or group of sentences to which it applies. Also separates a topic from a comment in topic/comment sentences.

su'o da poi remna
For-at-least-one X which is-a-human,
ro de poi finpe zo'u da prami de
for-all Ys which are-fish : X loves Y

There is someone who loves all fish.

Chapter 21. Formal grammars

The picture for chapter 21

21.1. EBNF grammar of Lojban

Lojban Machine Grammar, EBNF Version, Final Baseline

This EBNF document is explicitly dedicated to the public domain by its author, The Logical Language Group, Inc. Contact that organization at: 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031 USA 703-385-0273 (intl: +1 703 385 0273)

Explanation of notation: All rules have the form:

name number = bnf-expression

which means that the grammatical construct name is defined by bnf-expression.

  1. Names in lower case are grammatical constructs.

  2. Names in UPPER CASE are selma'o (lexeme) names, and are terminals.

  3. Concatenation is expressed by juxtaposition with no operator symbol.

  4. | represents alternation (choice).

  5. [] represents an optional element.

  6. & represents and/or. A & B is the same as A | B | A B but not B A. Furthermore, A & B & C & D permits one or more of A, B, C, and/or D, but only in that order.

  7. ... represents optional repetition of the construct to the left. Left-grouping is implied; right-grouping is shown by explicit self-referential recursion with no ...

  8. () serves to indicate the grouping of the other operators. Otherwise, ... binds closer than &, which binds closer than |.

  9. # is shorthand for [free ...] , a construct which appears in many places.

  10. // encloses an elidable terminator, which may be omitted (without change of meaning) if no grammatical ambiguity results.

text 0 =

[NAI ...] [CMEVLA ... # | (indicators & free ...)] [joik-jek] text-1

text-1 2 =

[(I [jek | joik] [[stag] BO] #) ... | NIhO ... #] [paragraphs]

paragraphs 4 =

paragraph [NIhO ... # paragraphs]

paragraph 10 =

(statement | fragment) [I # [statement | fragment]] ...

statement 11 =

statement-1 | prenex statement

statement-1 12 =

statement-2 [I joik-jek [statement-2]] ...

statement-2 13 =

statement-3 [I [jek | joik] [stag] BO # [statement-2]]

statement-3 14 =

sentence | [tag] TUhE # text-1 /TUhU#/

fragment 20 =

ek # | gihek # | quantifier | NA # | terms /VAU#/ | prenex | relative-clauses | links | linkargs

prenex 30 =

terms ZOhU #

sentence 40 =

[terms [CU #]] bridi-tail

subsentence 41 =

sentence | prenex subsentence

bridi-tail 50 =

bridi-tail-1 [gihek [stag] KE # bridi-tail /KEhE#/ tail-terms]

bridi-tail-1 51 =

bridi-tail-2 [gihek # bridi-tail-2 tail-terms] ...

bridi-tail-2 52 =

bridi-tail-3 [gihek [stag] BO # bridi-tail-2 tail-terms]

bridi-tail-3 53 =

selbri tail-terms | gek-sentence

gek-sentence 54 =

gek subsentence gik subsentence tail-terms | [tag] KE # gek-sentence /KEhE#/ | NA # gek-sentence

tail-terms 71 =

[terms] /VAU#/

terms 80 =

terms-1 ...

terms-1 81 =

terms-2 [PEhE # joik-jek terms-2] ...

terms-2 82 =

term [CEhE # term] ...

term 83 =

sumti | (tag | FA #) (sumti | /KU#/) | termset | NA KU #

termset 85 =

NUhI # gek terms /NUhU#/ gik terms /NUhU#/ | NUhI # terms /NUhU#/

sumti 90 =

sumti-1 [VUhO # relative-clauses]

sumti-1 91 =

sumti-2 [(ek | joik) [stag] KE # sumti /KEhE#/]

sumti-2 92 =

sumti-3 [joik-ek sumti-3] ...

sumti-3 93 =

sumti-4 [(ek | joik) [stag] BO # sumti-3]

sumti-4 94 =

sumti-5 | gek sumti gik sumti-4

sumti-5 95 =

[quantifier] sumti-6 [relative-clauses] | quantifier selbri /KU#/ [relative-clauses]

sumti-6 97 =

(LAhE # | NAhE BO #) [relative-clauses] sumti /LUhU#/ | KOhA # | lerfu-string /BOI#/ | LA # [relative-clauses] CMEVLA ... # | (LA | LE) # sumti-tail /KU#/ | LI # mex /LOhO#/ | ZO any-word # | LU text /LIhU#/ | LOhU any-word ... LEhU # | ZOI any-word anything any-word #

sumti-tail 111 =

[sumti-6 [relative-clauses]] sumti-tail-1 | relative-clauses sumti-tail-1

sumti-tail-1 112 =

[quantifier] selbri [relative-clauses] | quantifier sumti

relative-clauses 121 =

relative-clause [ZIhE # relative-clause] ...

relative-clause 122 =

GOI # term /GEhU#/ | NOI # subsentence /KUhO#/

selbri 130 =

[tag] selbri-1

selbri-1 131 =

selbri-2 | NA # selbri

selbri-2 132 =

selbri-3 [CO # selbri-2]

selbri-3 133 =

selbri-4 ...

selbri-4 134 =

selbri-5 [joik-jek selbri-5 | joik [stag] KE # selbri-3 /KEhE#/] ...

selbri-5 135 =

selbri-6 [(jek | joik) [stag] BO # selbri-5]

selbri-6 136 =

tanru-unit [BO # selbri-6] | [NAhE #] guhek selbri gik selbri-6

tanru-unit 150 =

tanru-unit-1 [CEI # tanru-unit-1] ...

tanru-unit-1 151 =

tanru-unit-2 [linkargs]

tanru-unit-2 152 =

BRIVLA # | GOhA [RAhO] # | KE # selbri-3 /KEhE#/ | ME # sumti /MEhU#/ [MOI #] | (number | lerfu-string) MOI # | NUhA # mex-operator | SE # tanru-unit-2 | JAI # [tag] tanru-unit-2 | any-word (ZEI any-word) ... | NAhE # tanru-unit-2 | NU [NAI] # [joik-jek NU [NAI] #] ... subsentence /KEI#/

linkargs 160 =

BE # term [links] /BEhO#/

links 161 =

BEI # term [links]

quantifier 300 =

number /BOI#/ | VEI # mex /VEhO#/

mex 310 =

mex-1 [operator mex-1] ... | FUhA # rp-expression

mex-1 311 =

mex-2 [BIhE # operator mex-1]

mex-2 312 =

operand | [PEhO #] operator mex-2 ... /KUhE#/

rp-expression 330 =

rp-operand rp-operand operator

rp-operand 332 =

operand | rp-expression

operator 370 =

operator-1 [joik-jek operator-1 | joik [stag] KE # operator /KEhE#/] ...

operator-1 371 =

operator-2 | guhek operator-1 gik operator-2 | operator-2 (jek | joik) [stag] BO # operator-1

operator-2 372 =

mex-operator | KE # operator /KEhE#/

mex-operator 374 =

SE # mex-operator | NAhE # mex-operator | MAhO # mex /TEhU#/ | NAhU # selbri /TEhU#/ | VUhU #

operand 381 =

operand-1 [(ek | joik) [stag] KE # operand /KEhE#/]

operand-1 382 =

operand-2 [joik-ek operand-2] ...

operand-2 383 =

operand-3 [(ek | joik) [stag] BO # operand-2]

operand-3 385 =

quantifier | lerfu-string /BOI#/ | NIhE # selbri /TEhU#/ | MOhE # sumti /TEhU#/ | JOhI # mex-2 ... /TEhU#/ | gek operand gik operand-3 | (LAhE # | NAhE BO #) operand /LUhU#/

number 812 =

PA [PA | lerfu-word] ...

lerfu-string 817 =

lerfu-word [PA | lerfu-word] ...

lerfu-word 987 =

BY | any-word BU | LAU lerfu-word | TEI lerfu-string FOI

ek 802 =

[NA] [SE] A [NAI]

gihek 818 =

[NA] [SE] GIhA [NAI]

jek 805 =

[NA] [SE] JA [NAI]

joik 806 =

[SE] JOI [NAI] | interval | GAhO interval GAhO

interval 932 =

[SE] BIhI [NAI]

joik-ek 421 =

joik # | ek #

joik-jek 422 =

joik # | jek #

gek 807 =

[SE] GA [NAI] # | joik GI # | stag gik

guhek 808 =

[SE] GUhA [NAI] #

gik 816 =

GI [NAI] #

tag 491 =

tense-modal [joik-jek tense-modal] ...

stag 971 =

simple-tense-modal [(jek | joik) simple-tense-modal] ...

tense-modal 815 =

simple-tense-modal # | FIhO # selbri /FEhU#/

simple-tense-modal 972 =

[NAhE] [SE] BAI [NAI] [KI] | [NAhE] (time [space] | space [time]) & CAhA [KI] | KI | CUhE

time 1030 =

ZI & time-offset ... & (ZEhA [PU [NAI]]) & interval-property ...

time-offset 1033 =

PU [NAI] [ZI]

space 1040 =

VA & space-offset ... & space-interval & (MOhI space-offset)

space-offset 1045 =

FAhA [NAI] [VA]

space-interval 1046 =

((VEhA & VIhA) [FAhA [NAI]]) & space-int-props

space-int-props 1049 =

(FEhE interval-property) ...

interval-property 1051 =

number ROI [NAI] | TAhE [NAI] | ZAhO [NAI]

free 32 =

SEI # [terms [CU #]] selbri /SEhU/ | SOI # sumti [sumti] /SEhU/ | vocative [relative-clauses] selbri [relative-clauses] /DOhU/ | vocative [relative-clauses] CMEVLA ... # [relative-clauses] /DOhU/ | vocative [sumti] /DOhU/ | (number | lerfu-string) MAI | TO text /TOI/ | XI # (number | lerfu-string) /BOI/ | XI # VEI # mex /VEhO/

vocative 415 =

(COI [NAI]) ... & DOI

indicators 411 =

[FUhE] indicator ...

indicator 413 =

(UI | CAI) [NAI] | Y | DAhO | FUhO

The following rules are non-formal:

word 1100 =

[BAhE] any-word [indicators]

any-word =

any single word (no compound cmavo)

anything =

any text at all, whether Lojban or not

null 1101 =

any-word SI | utterance SA | text SU

FAhO is a universal terminator and signals the end of parsable input.

Chrestomathy


1.  The North Wind and the Sun

An Aesop's fable

ni'o la berti brife jo'u la solri The North Wind and the Sun
.i la berti brife jo'u la solri pu troci leka djuno ledu'u makau traji leka vlipa vau fo le'i me lenei .icabo le pa litru noi dasni lo glare kosta cu mo'u klama The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.
.i lu'i le remei pu simxu leka tugni fi lenu traji leka vlipa fa le traji be leka clira fa lonu ce'u snada leka gasnu lenu le pa litru co'u dasni le kosta They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other.
.i baku la berti brife co'a traji cupra le brife .i ku'i lonu by.by. zenba leka cupra le xokau brife cu rinka lonu le pa litru cu zukte leka zenba leka sela'u li xokau se tagji le kosta .ibazabo la berti brife co'u troci Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt.
.i baku la solri co'a dirce lo milxe glare .ibazibo le pa litru co'u dasni le kosta Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.
.iseki'ubo la berti brife co'a bilga tugni fi lonu la solri cu traji leka vlipa vau fo la berti brife ce la solri And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.

2.  Terry, the Tiger, visits the big city

The text in Lojban here uses non-standard with additional punctuation marks that do not add any meaning but serve the purpose of a visual guide.

.i le tirxu be me'e zo .teris. cu klama le barda tcadu Terry the Tiger Visits the Big City.
.i la .maikl.turnianskis. di'e finti created by Michael Turniansky
.i le pa tirxu be me'e zo .teris. pu ki kansa le pendo be lenei leka xabju le foldi be loi spati .i me le bi'unai pendo fa le pa xanto be me'e zo .elis. fa le pa xirnzebra be me'e zo .zois. .i la .teris. ze'e ta'e djica lenu lenei cu litru klama le pa barda tcadu voi fa'a ke'a ta'eku le'e vinji ga'u vofli klama .isemu'ibo ca pa donri la .teris. co'a cadzu klama le bi'unai barda tcadu Terry the Tiger lived with his friends in the jungle. His friends were Elly the Elephant and Zoe the Zebra. Terry always wanted to visit the big city, where the planes flew overhead to. So one day, Terry started to walk to the big city.
.i baziku la .teris. co'a klama le pa rirxe gi'e retsku fi le pa finpe pe ne'i le rirxe fe le sedu'u makau pluta le tcadu .i le finpe fi la .teris. cu spusku fe lu «ko cadzu ne'a le bu'u rirxe ze'a le djedi be li ci .ibabo do viska ru» li'u .i la .teris. cu se gidva tu'a lubu .ije ca le fanmo be le cimoi be le'i donri la .teris. cu viska le so'o te gusni pe le bi'unai .uisaidai tcadu .isemu'ibo la .teris. co'i platu fi lenu ri ba cadzu ze'a le nicte Soon, Terry came to a river, and asked a fish in it the way to the city. The fish told Terry "Walk along the river for three days, and then you will see it". Terry followed that advice. At the end of the third day, Terry saw several lights of the city (Hooray!). So Terry decided to continue walking the whole night long.
ni'o ca le cerni la .teris. mo'u klama le pa zarci noi se stuzi le korbi be le tcadu .i le pa nanla cu zvati le stuzi .i «lu .iicai tirxu» li'u se cusku le bi'unai nanla .i «lu .iicai nanla» li'u se cusku la .teris. (to .i le bi'unai nanla fa'u la .teris. pu no roi zgana lo tirxu fa'u lo nanla toi) .i le nanla noi se cmene zo .mulis. goi my. ganse lenu la .teris. na bradi .iseki'ubo preti fi le nanla fe lenu la .teris. cu djica lenu ri gau my. se slabu le tcadu In the morning, Terry arrived at a marketplace, which was at the edge of the city. There was a boy there. "Aiee! A tiger!" said the boy. "Aiee! A boy!" said Terry (for the boy had never seen a tiger before, and Terry had never seen a boy before). The boy, who was Mooli, could tell that Terry was friendly, so he asked Terry if he would like to be shown the city.
.i «lu .iesai .i ku'i ca je'a se djica mi fa lonu mi ze'a sipna .i mi mutce leka tatpi» li'u se cusku la .teris. "Oh, yes! But what I really want right now is some sleep. I'm very tired," said Terry.
.i lu «je'e do .i mi'o zifre leka klama le zdani be mi» li'u se cusku la .mulis. "Okay, we can go to my house," said Mooli.
.iseki'ubo le remei cu cadzu klama le zdani be la .mulis. So the two of them walked to Mooli's house.
ni'o ca lenu le remei mo'u klama le zdani vau la .mulis. cu retsku fi le mamta be ri fe «lu gau mi .e'o .e'a pei le tirxu cu kansa mi leka klama le zdani» li'u When they got to his house, Mooli asked his mother, "Is it okay if I bring a tiger home?".
.i «lu .e'a doi la .mulis.» li'u se cusku le mamta .iki'ubo ri jinvi ledu'u la .mulis. cu kelci zukte lo tcica "Sure, Mooli" said his mother, because she thought he was just pretending.
.i seja'eku gau la .mulis. zvati fa la .teris. le kumfa be my. .ije la .teris. co'a sipna ga'u je re'o le loldi .icabo la .mulis. cu zukte leka klama le bartu vau lenu my. kelci So he brought Terry to his room, and Terry went to sleep on the floor, while Mooli went oustide to play.
ni'o le mamta za krixa cusku lu «doi la .mulis. ca tcika lenu vanci sanmi .i ju'i la .mulis.» li'u .i le mamta cu klama le kumfa pe la .mulis. gi'e viska la .teris. ca lenu ri sipna .i le mamta co'a krixa cusku «lu .iicai le tirxu co'i citka le bersa be mi .i doi pulji ko sidju .i ko sidju .i doi pulji .i tirxu .i tirxu .i ko sidju li'u» gi'e to'o bajra A while later, his mother called, "Mooli, time for dinner... Mooli?" She went to Mooli's room and saw Terry, who was sleeping. She cried out, "Aaaah! A tiger has eaten my son! Police, help! Help! Police! Tiger! Tiger! Help!" and ran out.
.i le savru cu rinka lenu la .teris. co'a cikna .i ri plipe pa'o le canko gi'e bajra klama le zdani be lenei bei ne'i le foldi be loi spati gi'e nupre fi lenei fe leka noroi ba cliva le bi'unai foldi The noise woke Terry, who leaped through the window, and ran back to his home in the jungle, promising never again to leave it.

3.  There will come soft rains

Lojban translation English original Back translation from Lojban
ba milxe bo carvi There Will Come Soft Rains There will be mild rains
.i finti fa la .saras.tizdeil. Written by Sara Teasdale Sara Teasdale invented.
.i ba milxe bo carvi .i panci lo dertu There will come soft rains and the smell of the ground, There will be mild rains. It smells of the ground.
.i le cipni ba sutra bo vofli co certu And swallows circling with their shimmering sound; Birds will skillfully rapidly fly.
.i le banfi ba sanga .i melbi bo vanci And frogs in the pools singing at night, The frogs will sing. It is a beautiful evening.
.i le flaume bo tricu ba blabi se manci And wild plum trees in tremulous white, The plum-trees will be white-marvelous.
.i le gunse ba dasni le fagri bo pimlu Robins will wear their feathery fire Geese will wear fire-feathers.
gi'e siclu fe le jai se gleki co simlu Whistling their whims on a low fence-wire; and whistle seemingly happy melodies.
.i se slabu le jamna fa no cmalu danlu And not one will know of the war, not one No small animal will know the warriors.
.i no stuzi le xarci ba su'o roi canlu Will care at last when it is done. No place will ever be taken by the weapons.
.i no cipni ba xanka fa no jdari tricu Not one would mind, neither bird nor tree No bird will worry, neither any strong tree
fe le fanmo be mi'a noi no da ba skicu If mankind perished utterly; about the end of us who no one will tell about.
.i la vensa ba cikna ke viska le cmana And Spring herself, when she woke at dawn, Spring will awakeningly see the mountains.
.i te mintu le jalge .i vy. ri na zgana Would scarcely know that we were gone. The outcome is equal. Spring doesn't observe it.

4.  Alice in Wonderland

An extract.

la .alis. cu zvati la se manci tumla .i finti fa la .lu,is.karol. Alice in Wonderland. Written by Lewis Carroll.
ni'o ni'o pa mo'o mo'i ni'a le kevna pe le ractu CHAPTER I. Down the Rabbit-Hole
ni'o la .alis. co'a tatpi lenu ri zutse re'o le mensi be .a bu goi la .alis. le korbi be le rirxe gi'e zukte fi no da .i mu'a .a bu cu so'u roi sutra catlu le cukta poi le mensi cu tcidu .i ku'i le cukta cu cukta no pixra .e no vreji be lonu casnu .i lu ja'o ma prali fi le cukta to'isa'a pensi cusku fa .abu toi fi le cukta poi cukta no pixra .e no vreji be lonu casnu li'u Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what is the use of a book,' thought Alice 'without pictures or conversations?'
ni'o la .alis. ca'o se menli jdice fu'e ta'o se rai leka kakne poi se curmi le glare donri noi rinka lonu la .alis. cu lifri leka djica lonu ri sipna kei gi'e bebna fu'o fi le jei lonu pluka fa lonu zbasu lo xrula linsi cu naku naku jalge lo raktu poi nu co'a sanli gi'e crepu lo xrula .icabo suksa fa lonu le pa blabi ractu ku noi se kanla lo xunblabi cu bajra ne'a la .alis. So she was considering in her own mind (as well as she could, for the hot day made her feel very sleepy and stupid), whether the pleasure of making a daisy-chain would be worth the trouble of getting up and picking the daisies, when suddenly a White Rabbit with pink eyes ran close by her.
ni'o la'edi'u na'e ba'e mutce leka cizra .i ji'a jenai la .alis. cu jinvi ledu'u ba'e mutce leka na'e fadni vau fa lonu tirna lonu ju'a le ractu cu cusku fi lenei fe lu .oi ro'a .oi ro'a mi jai lerci li'u to baku la .alis. ca lonu ri pensi la'edi'u co'a jinvi fi ri fe ledu'u da'i pu rarna fa lonu la .alis. cu manci .i ku'i caku le fasnu cu simlu leka rarna toi .i ku'i ca lonu le ractu fu'e .uesai co'a jgari le junla le daski be le kosta fu'o gi'e catlu le junla gi'e di'a sutra kei la .alis. co'a spaji sanli ki'u lonu ke pe'a lindi pagre le menli be la .alis. fa lesi'o ri pu noroi viska lo ractu poi dasni lo kosta poi se daski .a lo junla pe lonu punji to'o ri .ije la .alis. ri'a lonu ri kucli cu bajra pagre le foldi gi'e jersi le ractu gi'e .u'a viska lonu le ractu cu canci mo'i ne'i le pa barda ke kevna pe lo'e ractu zi'e noi cnita le spati bitmu There was nothing so VERY remarkable in that; nor did Alice think it so VERY much out of the way to hear the Rabbit say to itself, 'Oh dear! Oh dear! I shall be late!' (when she thought it over afterwards, it occurred to her that she ought to have wondered at this, but at the time it all seemed quite natural); but when the Rabbit actually TOOK A WATCH OUT OF ITS WAISTCOAT-POCKET, and looked at it, and then hurried on, Alice started to her feet, for it flashed across her mind that she had never before seen a rabbit with either a waistcoat-pocket, or a watch to take out of it, and burning with curiosity, she ran across the field after it, and fortunately was just in time to see it pop down a large rabbit-hole under the hedge.
ni'o baziku la .alis. mo'i ne'i jersi le ractu gi'e no roi pensi lonu ta'i ba'e ma kau lenei ba di'a bartu In another moment down went Alice after it, never once considering how in the world she was to get out again.
ni'o le kevna ve'a tubnu sirji gi'e suksa salpo fi lo cnita .i tai suksa .ija'ebo la .alis. na zifre leka ze'i su'o da pensi lonu ri zukte leka co'u klama vau pu lonu ju'a la .alis. ca'o farlu bu'u le pa mutce condi jinto The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel for some way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before she found herself falling down a very deep well.
ni'o ga le jinto cu mutce leka condi gi la .alis. cu mutce leka masno leka farlu .ini'ibo le se ranji be lenu farlu cu banzu lonu catlu lei sruri gi'e kucli ledu'u bazi fasnu .i pamai la .alis. cu troci leka catlu le cnita gi'e facki ledu'u lenei makau klama .i ku'i manku ja'e lenu na ka'e viska .i remai la .alis. cu catlu le mlana be le jinto gi'e facki ledu'u le mlana cu culno le se kajna be fi tu'a lo kabri .a lo cukta .i la .alis. cu viska tu'a le so'o cartu .e le so'o pixra vu'o noi dandu fi le so'o genxu .i la .alis. co'a tolpu'i le pa botpi pa le kajna ca lonu lenei ne'a muvdu .i le botpi cu se tcita lu najnimre jduli li'u gi'e ku'i .u'a nai kunti .i la .alis. mu'i lonu ri terpa lonu da'i ri jai gau morsi fai su'o da cu na djica lonu ri curmi lonu le botpi cu farlu .iseki'ubo la .alis. cu sutra leka punji le botpi le pa me le se kajna ca lonu lenei ne'a farlu Either the well was very deep, or she fell very slowly, for she had plenty of time as she went down to look about her and to wonder what was going to happen next. First, she tried to look down and make out what she was coming to, but it was too dark to see anything; then she looked at the sides of the well, and noticed that they were filled with cupboards and book-shelves; here and there she saw maps and pictures hung upon pegs. She took down a jar from one of the shelves as she passed; it was labelled 'ORANGE MARMALADE', but to her great disappointment it was empty: she did not like to drop the jar for fear of killing somebody, so managed to put it into one of the cupboards as she fell past it.
ni'o lu .uo to'isa'a pensi cusku fa la .alis. fi lenei toi da'i ca lonu mi ba'o farlu tai ti vau mi ba'o xanka lonu mi farlu fo lo serti .i fe lu .ua virnu li'u fa le se lanzu ba cusku co jinvi be fi mi .i .u'o mi no da cusku ba ji'asai lonu mi farlu fi lo drudi be lo zdani to'isa'a la'edi'u la'asai jetnu toi li'u Well!' thought Alice to herself, 'after such a fall as this, I shall think nothing of tumbling down stairs! How brave they'll all think me at home! Why, I wouldn't say anything about it, even if I fell off the top of the house!' (Which was very likely true.)
ni'o mo'i ni'a je ni'a je ni'a .i xu lenu farlu cu noroi mulno .i lu mi farlu vi'i le minli be li xo .a'u to'isa'a cladu cusku fa la .alis. toi .i .ia mi pu'o jibni le midju be le terdi .i ka'u kilto leka minli li vo vau leka sraji to'isa'a .o'e dai bu'o la .alis. pu cilre so'o da la'edi'u le ckule .i zu'u le cabna ki'u lonu no da tirna la .alis. cu na ba'e mutce le ka mapti lonu jarco leka djuno .i zu'u nai lonu za'ure'u cusku cu xamgu la .alis. leka cilre toi .i .ie se'i le se minli cu jibni drani .i ku'i .a'u ma ti bernanjudri gi'e sunsicyjudri to la .alis. na sai djuno ledu'u makau smuni ga zo bernanjudri gi zo sunsicyjudri .i ku'i lego'i cu jinvi ledu'u melbi je banli valsi toi li'u Down, down, down. Would the fall NEVER come to an end! 'I wonder how many miles I've fallen by this time?' she said aloud. 'I must be getting somewhere near the centre of the earth. Let me see: that would be four thousand miles down, I think—' (for, you see, Alice had learnt several things of this sort in her lessons in the schoolroom, and though this was not a VERY good opportunity for showing off her knowledge, as there was no one to listen to her, still it was good practice to say it over) '—yes, that's about the right distance—but then I wonder what Latitude or Longitude I've got to?' (Alice had no idea what Latitude was, or Longitude either, but thought they were nice grand words to say.)
ni'o caku la .alis. cu za'ure'u di'a cusku .i lu .a'u mi ba farlu ba'e pagre le terdi .i ba xajmi fa lenu tolcanci ne'a lo prenu poi cadzu fau lonu le stedu be ke'a cu cnita vau fa ke'a .i lo'e tai prenu cu se cmene zo smudukti pe'i to'isa'a la .alis. ca gleki lonu no da tirna .i ki'u bo lo valsi na sai drani toi .i ku'i .ei mi retsku fi lo se gugde fe le se du'u ma kau cmene le gugde .i lu pau doi ninmu ti nuzlo gi'i sralo li'u to'isa'a .i la .alis. ca lonu ri tavla cu troci leka krorinsa .i ko se xanri leka krorinsa ca lonu do farlu .i xu do snada toi .i djuno be no da ke cmalu nixli sei le ninmu ba jinvi be ki'u lonu mi retsku .i .ei mi noroi retsku .i la'a cu'i je mi viska lo cmene noi pu'i se ciska bu'u da li'u Presently she began again. 'I wonder if I shall fall right THROUGH the earth! How funny it'll seem to come out among the people that walk with their heads downward! The Antipathies, I think—' (she was rather glad there WAS no one listening, this time, as it didn't sound at all the right word) '—but I shall have to ask them what the name of the country is, you know. Please, Ma'am, is this New Zealand or Australia?' (and she tried to curtsey as she spoke—fancy CURTSEYING as you're falling through the air! Do you think you could manage it?) 'And what an ignorant little girl she'll think me for asking! No, it'll never do to ask: perhaps I shall see it written up somewhere.'
ni'o mo'i ni'a je mo'i ni'a je mo'i ni'a .i ka'e zukte no drata be la'edi'e .iseki'ubo la .alis. za'ure'u co'a tavla .i lu ju'o baku la .dinas. ca le vanci be le cabdei cu mutce badri lonu mi na kansa to'isa'a la .dinas. cu mlatu toi .i .a'o le se lanzu ba morji tu'a loi ladru pe ne'i lo palta zi'e pe se va'u la .dinas. ca le cedra be lonu sanmi .i doi la .dinas. noi dirba mi vau do mi kansa .au lenu vi cnita .i .u'u no smacu cu zvati lei vacri .i ku'i do ka'e kavbu lo ka'u vofli ratcu noi ka'u mutce leka simsa le'e smacu .i ku'i .a'u xu cafne fa lonu lo'e mlatu cu citka lo'e vofli ratcu li'u .i caku la .alis. co'a lifri leka pu'o sipna .i je .abu di'a je fi'o se senva fe'u cusku fi lenei lu xu lo'e mlatu cu citka lo'e vofli ratcu .i xu lo'e mlatu cu citka lo'e vofli ratcu li'u .e su'o roi bo lu xu lo'e vofli ratcu cu citka lo'e mlatu li'u .i ku'i le se porsi cu na mutce vajni ki'u lonu la .alis. na ka'e spuda su'o le re preti .i la .alis. cu lifri leka zenba leka sipna .i je .abu co'a senva lonu ri kansa la .dinas. gi'e jgari lo xance be ri gi'e cusku lu ju'i la .dinas. ko mi skicu lo jetnu .i xu do su'o roi citka lo vofli ratcu li'u .i ca bo sei sance be fa lo simsa zo .tamtam. la .alis. co'i klama lo cpana be lo derxi be lo grana jo'u lo sudga pezli .i je lenu farlu cu mulno Down, down, down. There was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began talking again. 'Dinah'll miss me very much to-night, I should think!' (Dinah was the cat.) 'I hope they'll remember her saucer of milk at tea-time. Dinah my dear! I wish you were down here with me! There are no mice in the air, I'm afraid, but you might catch a bat, and that's very like a mouse, you know. But do cats eat bats, I wonder?' And here Alice began to get rather sleepy, and went on saying to herself, in a dreamy sort of way, 'Do cats eat bats? Do cats eat bats?' and sometimes, 'Do bats eat cats?' for, you see, as she couldn't answer either question, it didn't much matter which way she put it. She felt that she was dozing off, and had just begun to dream that she was walking hand in hand with Dinah, and saying to her very earnestly, 'Now, Dinah, tell me the truth: did you ever eat a bat?' when suddenly, thump! thump! down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and the fall was over.
ni'o la .alis. no va'e leka se xrani kei gi'e bazi sanli fi le jamfu gi'e semu'ibo catlu lei gapru noi ku'i mulno leka manku .ije crane la .alis. fa le pa drata ke clani vorme .i le blabi ractu za'o se viska gi'e sutra leka litru le vorme .i .ei la .alis. na denpa .i la .alis. cu klama tai tu'a lo brife gi'e ge jai cabna gi snada lo ka tirna kei vau lonu le ractu cu cusku lu .oi doi le kerlo .e le gaskre vu'o pe mi co'a mutce leka lerci li'u .i la .alis. cu jibni trixe le ractu ca lonu ri carna ru'u le kojna .i ku'i le ractu ca ba'o se viska .i la .alis. cu facki ledu'u ri zvati le pa kumfa noi clani leka pinta kei gi'e tordu leka sraji zi'e noi se gusni fi le se linji noi dandu le drudi Alice was not a bit hurt, and she jumped up on to her feet in a moment: she looked up, but it was all dark overhead; before her was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still in sight, hurrying down it. There was not a moment to be lost: away went Alice like the wind, and was just in time to hear it say, as it turned a corner, 'Oh my ears and whiskers, how late it's getting!' She was close behind it when she turned the corner, but the Rabbit was no longer to be seen: she found herself in a long, low hall, which was lit up by a row of lamps hanging from the roof.
ni'o le kumfa cu se sruri lei so'i vorme .i ku'i ro me ri cu se stela ganlo .i la .alis. ca lonu ri ba'o ku litru le pamoi be le'i mlana .e le drata mlana gi'e troci tu'a ro vorme cu badri cadzu bu'u le midju gi'e kucli ledu'u ta'i makau lenei ba za'ure'u bartu There were doors all round the hall, but they were all locked; and when Alice had been all the way down one side and up the other, trying every door, she walked sadly down the middle, wondering how she was ever to get out again.
ni'o fi'o suksa la .alis. cu penmi le cmalu jubme noi se tuple ci da gi'e marji lo sligu blaci .i cpana le jubme fa ke po'o le cmacma ke solji ckiku .i pare'uku la .alis. cu jinvi ledu'u le ckiku cu ckiku pa stela be le vorme pe le kumfa .i ku'i .uinai ro da poi me le stela zo'u ga da du'e va'e leka barda gi le ckiku cu du'e va'e leka cmalu .iseju le ckiku fai no vorme ka'e jai gau kalri .i ku'i la .alis. ca lenu ri rere'u ru'u litru cu penmi le dizlo murta noi la .alis. pu nu'o sanji .i le murta cu murta le cmalu vorme noi degygutci li ji'i pa mu .i la .alis. cu troci leka co'e le cmalu ke solji ckiku le stela .ije .uisai mapti Suddenly she came upon a little three-legged table, all made of solid glass; there was nothing on it except a tiny golden key, and Alice's first thought was that it might belong to one of the doors of the hall; but, alas! either the locks were too large, or the key was too small, but at any rate it would not open any of them. However, on the second time round, she came upon a low curtain she had not noticed before, and behind it was a little door about fifteen inches high: she tried the little golden key in the lock, and to her great delight it fitted!
ni'o la .alis. cu jai gau kalri fai le vorme gi'e zgana lenu ri vorme le cmalu pluta voi na zmadu lo'e kevna pe lo ratcu leka barda .i .uo la .alis. co'a sanli fi le cidni gi'e catlu fa'a le fanmo be le pluta be'o noi .ue traji leka melbi vau lo'i purdi poi pu'i su'oroi viska lu'a ke'a .i caku la .alis. cu djica lonu ri co'a bartu le manku kumfa gi'e cadzu jbini le va zdani be le carmi xrula be'o jo'u le va lenku ke jetce jinto .i ku'i je la .alis. na ka'e jai zu'e pagre fai le ji'a stedu le kevna .i lu da'i lonu le .ianai mu'anai stedu be mi ka'e pagre to'isa'a se pensi la .uu .alis. toi cu so'u va'e leka prali vau fau lonu na co'e le janco be mi .i .au mi ne tai le'e darvistci ka'e se polje .i pe'i mi da'i ka'e go'i fau lonu mi djuno ledu'u mi ta'i ma kau co'a go'i li'u .i za'a dai so'i cizra pu ze'a ca fasnu .i ja'e bo la .alis. co'a jinvi ledu'u su'e so'u fasnu naku ka'e ku cumki Alice opened the door and found that it led into a small passage, not much larger than a rat-hole: she knelt down and looked along the passage into the loveliest garden you ever saw. How she longed to get out of that dark hall, and wander about among those beds of bright flowers and those cool fountains, but she could not even get her head through the doorway; 'and even if my head would go through,' thought poor Alice, 'it would be of very little use without my shoulders. Oh, how I wish I could shut up like a telescope! I think I could, if I only knew how to begin.' For, you see, so many out-of-the-way things had happened lately, that Alice had begun to think that very few things indeed were really impossible.
ni'o simlu leka na prali fi lonu denpa ne'a le cmalu vorme .iseki'ubo la .alis. di'a klama le jubme fau lonu ri so'o va'e leka pacna lonu ri zvafa'i lo drata ckiku .a lo do'anai cukta be lo javni be lo tadji be lonu polje lo'e remna ne tai lo'e darvistci .i ca le ca krefu la .alis. cu zgana le cmalu botpi noi cpana le jubme (to lu ju'o pu na zvati ti li'u se cusku la .alis. toi) .i sruri le cnebo be le botpi fa le pa pelji tcita noi le valsi voi du lu ko mi pinxe cu ckaji leka le pixra be ce'u cu melbi prina ke'a gi'e me vu'i le barda lerfu There seemed to be no use in waiting by the little door, so she went back to the table, half hoping she might find another key on it, or at any rate a book of rules for shutting people up like telescopes: this time she found a little bottle on it, ('which certainly was not here before,' said Alice,) and round the neck of the bottle was a paper label, with the words 'DRINK ME' beautifully printed on it in large letters.
ni'o .o'ocu'i xamgu fa lenu cusku lu ko mi pinxe li'u .i ku'i la .alis. noi prije cu na platu fi lonu ri bazi zukte la'e ba'e di'u .i lu .ainai .i .ai pa mai mi catlu to'isa'a la .alis. cu cusku toi gi'e facki ledu'u xu kau ru se tcita zo vindu li'u .i la .alis. pu tcidu le so'o vreji be lo melbi ke cmalu lisri be le verba voi se xrani tu'a loi fagri gi'a se citka le cilce danlu gi'a lifri le drata rigni vau fa ke'a ki'u lonu ke'a na ba'e morji le sampu javni voi le pendo be ke'a cu ctuca ke'a zi'e noi mu'a du ledu'u lo'e xunre glare tunta cu fagri jai xrani lo'e za'o jgari be ri zi'e noi mu'a du ledu'u nu lo'e degji va'o lonu ri ba'e mutce leka condi leka se sraku lo'e dakfu cu ta'e vikmi loi ciblu .i la .alis. noroi co'u morji ledu'u lo'e prenu ganai pinxe lo'e du'e se botpi be lo se tcita be zo vindu gi bazi ja bazu se fanza It was all very well to say 'Drink me,' but the wise little Alice was not going to do THAT in a hurry. 'No, I'll look first,' she said, 'and see whether it's marked "poison" or not'; for she had read several nice little histories about children who had got burnt, and eaten up by wild beasts and other unpleasant things, all because they WOULD not remember the simple rules their friends had taught them: such as, that a red-hot poker will burn you if you hold it too long; and that if you cut your finger VERY deeply with a knife, it usually bleeds; and she had never forgotten that, if you drink much from a bottle marked 'poison,' it is almost certain to disagree with you, sooner or later.
ni'o ku'i ti voi botpi cu na se tcita zo vindu .iseki'ubo la .alis. cu darsi leka jai zu'e ganse le se vasru .ije le go'i fau lenu ri facki ledu'u pluka (to je'u vrusi lo mixre be lo tisna be loi rutrceraso be'o jo'u lo kruji be loi sovda be'o jo'u lo grutrxananase jo'u lo se jukpa xruki jo'u lo sakta matne jo'u lo glare ke nanba poi kansa lo matne toi) cu zi mo'u pinxe However, this bottle was NOT marked 'poison,' so Alice ventured to taste it, and finding it very nice, (it had, in fact, a sort of mixed flavour of cherry-tart, custard, pine-apple, roast turkey, toffee, and hot buttered toast,) she very soon finished it off.

5.  Kubla Khan

An extract.

la .kublaXAN. Kubla Khan
.i la .samu,el.tailor.kolridj. di'e finti written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
vi la .can.duv. la .kublaXAN. In Xanadu did Kubla Khan
cu minde fi le melbi vi A stately pleasure dome decree:
la .alf. noi censa rirxe lei Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
noi so'i mei vau kevna fo Through caverns measureless to man
le nicte xamsi pe vu .i Down to a sunless sea.
uo li re pi'i mu se minli So twice five miles of fertile ground
lei ferti dertu joi lei noi cinla With walls and towers were girdled round:
vau korcu flecu joi lei purdi And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills,
joi le se panci tricu .i lei foldi Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree;
be le cmana .e le tricu voi na se gundi And here were forests ancient as the hills,
cu sruri le se gusni crino co condi Enfolding sunny spots of greenery.

Lojban Words Glossary

All definitions in this glossary are brief and unofficial. Only the published dictionary is a truly official reference for word definitions. These definitions are here simply as a quick reference.

.a

logical connective: sumti afterthought or.

.abu

letteral for a.

.a'e

attitudinal: alertness - exhaustion.

.a'o

attitudinal: hope - despair.

.a'u

attitudinal: interest - disinterest - repulsion.

.ai

attitudinal: intent - indecision - rejection/refusal.

.ainai

attitudinal: intent - indecision - rejection/refusal.

.au

attitudinal: desire - indifference - reluctance.

ba

time tense relation/direction: will [selbri]; after [sumti]; default future tense.

badribadri

x1 is sad/depressed/dejected/[unhappy/feels sorrow/grief] about x2 (abstraction).

ba'a

evidential: I expect - I experience - I remember.

ba'acu'i

evidential: I expect - I experience - I remember.

ba'anai

evidential: I expect - I experience - I remember.

ba'e

forethought emphasis indicator; indicates next word is especially emphasized.

ba'o

interval event contour: in the aftermath of ...; since ...; retrospective/perfect | |----.

baibai

bapli modal, 1st place (forced by) forcedly; compelled by force ...

bajrabajra

x1 runs on surface x2 using limbs x3 with gait x4.

bakrecpa'o

p1=r1 is a steak/beefsteak (flat cut of beef) from cow/cattle/kine/ox p2=r2=b1.

bakribakri

x1 is a quantity of/contains/is made of chalk from source x2 in form x3.

baku

after that, in future

balsoi

s1=b1 is a great soldier of army s2 great in property b2 (ka) by standard b3.

balvibalvi

x1 is in the future of/later than/after x2 in time sequence; x1 is latter; x2 is former.

banfibanfi

x1 is an amphibian of species/breed x2.

bangubangu

x1 is a/the language/dialect used by x2 to express/communicate x3 (si'o/du'u, not quote).

banlibanli

x1 is great/grand in property x2 (ka) by standard x3.

banzubanzu

x1 (object) suffices/is enough/sufficient for purpose x2 under conditions x3.

bapu

time tense: will have been; (tense/modal).

bardabarda

x1 is big/large in property/dimension(s) x2 (ka) as compared with standard/norm x3.

bartubartu

x1 is on the outside of x2; x1 is exterior to x2.

bastibasti

x1 replaces/substitutes for/instead of x2 in circumstance x3; x1 is a replacement/substitute.

basygau

g1 (agent) replaces/substitutes b1 for/instead of b2 in circumstance b3.

batcibatci

x1 bites/pinches x2 on/at specific locus x3 with x4.

baubau

bangu modal, 1st place in language ...

bavla'i

b1=l1 is next after b2=l2 in sequence l3.

bavlamdei

d1=b1=l1 is tomorrow; d1=b1=l1 is the day following b2=l2, day standard d3.

baxsobaxso

x1 reflects Malay-Indonesian common language/culture in aspect x2.

bazi

soon ...

baziku

soon

bazu

in a long time ..

be

sumti link to attach sumti (default x2) to a selbri; used in descriptions.

bebnabebna

x1 is foolish/silly in event/action/property [folly] (ka) x2; x1 is a boob.

be'a

location tense relation/direction; north of.

be'o

elidable terminator: end linked sumti in specified description.

be'u

attitudinal modifier: lack/need - presence/satisfaction - satiation.

bei

separates multiple linked sumti within a selbri; used in descriptions.

bemrobemro

x1 reflects North American culture/nationality/geography in aspect x2.

bengobengo

x1 reflects Bengali/Bangladesh culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

bernanjudri

j1 is the latitude/declination of j2 in system j3.

bersabersa

x1 is a son of mother/father/parents x2 [not necessarily biological].

bertiberti

x1 is to the north/northern side [right-hand-rule pole] of x2 according to frame of reference x3.

bi'e

prefixed to a mex operator to indicate high priority.

bi'i

non-logical interval connective: unordered between ... and ...

bi'o

non-logical interval connective: ordered from ... to ...

bi'u

discursive: newly introduced information - previously introduced information.

bi'unai

discursive: newly introduced information - previously introduced information.

bilgabilga

x1 is bound/obliged to/has the duty to do/be x2 in/by standard/agreement x3; x1 must do x2.

bilmabilma

x1 is ill/sick/diseased with symptoms x2 from disease x3.

bindobindo

x1 reflects Indonesian culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

birkabirka

x1 is a/the arm [body-part] of x2; [metaphor: branch with strength].

bitmubitmu

x1 is a wall/fence separating x2 and x3 (unordered) of/in structure x4.

blabiblabi

x1 is white/very-light colored [color adjective].

blaciblaci

x1 is a quantity of/is made of/contains glass of composition including x2.

blakanla

x1 is an eye of x2 and has a blue iris

blanublanu

x1 is blue [color adjective].

blari'o

c1 is blue-green.

blaselkanla

x1 has blue eyes

blolei

k1 is a ship type/class within ships b1=k2, with features k3.

blotibloti

x1 is a boat/ship/vessel [vehicle] for carrying x2, propelled by x3.

bo

short scope joiner; joins various constructs with shortest scope and right grouping.

boi

elidable terminator: terminate numeral or letteral string.

botpibotpi

x1 is a bottle/jar/urn/flask/closable container for x2, made of material x3 with lid x4.

bradibradi

x1 is an enemy/opponent/adversary/foe of x2 in struggle x3.

brazobrazo

x1 reflects Brazilian culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

bredibredi

x1 is ready/prepared for x2 (event).

bridibridi

x1 (du'u) is a predicate relationship with relation x2 among arguments (sequence/set) x3.

brifebrife

x1 is a breeze/wind/gale from direction x2 with speed x3; x1 blows from x2.

britobrito

x1 reflects British/United Kingdom culture/nationality in aspect x2.

brivla

v1 is a morphologically defined predicate word signifying relation b2 in language v3.

brodabroda

1st assignable variable predicate (context determines place structure).

brodebrode

2nd assignable variable predicate (context determines place structure).

brodibrodi

3rd assignable variable predicate (context determines place structure).

brodobrodo

4th assignable variable predicate (context determines place structure).

brodubrodu

5th assignable variable predicate (context determines place structure).

bu

convert any single word to BY.

budjobudjo

x1 pertains to the Buddhist culture/religion/ethos in aspect x2.

bu'a

logically quantified predicate variable: some selbri 1.

bu'e

logically quantified predicate variable: some selbri 2.

bu'i

logically quantified predicate variable: some selbri 3.

bu'o

attitudinal contour: start emotion - continue emotion - end emotion.

bu'ocu'i

attitudinal contour: start emotion - continue emotion - end emotion.

bu'onai

attitudinal contour: start emotion - continue emotion - end emotion.

bu'u

location tense relation/direction; coincident with/at the same place as; space equivalent of ca.

by.

letteral for b.

by.by.

letteral for BB

ca

time tense relation/direction: is [selbri]; during/simultaneous with [sumti]; present tense.

cabdei

d1=c1 is today; d1=c1 is the day occuring at the same time as c2, day standard d3.

cabnacabna

x1 is current at/in the present of/during/concurrent/simultaneous with x2 in time.

cadzucadzu

x1 walks/strides/paces on surface x2 using limbs x3.

cafnecafne

x1 (event) often/frequently/commonly/customarily occurs/recurs by standard x2.

cagyce'u

x1 is a farming community with members x2.

ca'a

modal aspect: actuality/ongoing event.

ca'e

evidential: I define.

ca'o

interval event contour: during ...; continuative |-----|.

cai

attitudinal: strong intensity attitude modifier.

cakcinki

x1 is a beetle of species x2.

caku

Now. At the present time.

calkucalku

x1 is a shell/husk [hard, protective covering] around x2 composed of x3.

cancicanci

x1 vanishes/disappears from location x2; x1 ceases to be observed at x2 using senses/sensor x3.

cankocanko

x1 is a window/portal/opening [portal] in wall/building/structure x2.

canlucanlu

x1 is space/volume/region/room [at-least-3-dimensional area] occupied by x2.

carmicarmi

x1 is intense/bright/saturated/brilliant in property (ka) x2 as received/measured by observer x3.

carnacarna

x1 turns about vector x2 towards direction x3, turning angular distance / to face point x4

cartucartu

x1 is a chart/diagram/map of/about x2 showing formation/data-points x3.

carvicarvi

x1 rains/showers/[precipitates] to x2 from x3; x1 is precipitation [not limited to 'rain'].

casnucasnu

x1(s) (mass normally, but 1 individual/jo'u possible) discuss(es)/talk(s) about topic/subject x2.

catlucatlu

x1 looks at/examines/views/inspects/regards/watches/gazes at x2.

ce

non-logical connective: set link, unordered; "and also", but forming a set.

cedracedra

x1 is an era/epoch/age characterized by x2 (event/property/interval/idea).

ce'a

2-word letteral/shift: the word following indicates a new font (e.g. italics, manuscript).

ce'e

links terms into an afterthought termset.

ce'i

digit/number: % percentage symbol, hundredths.

ce'o

non-logical connective: ordered sequence link; "and then", forming a sequence.

ce'u

pseudo-quantifier binding a variable within an abstraction that represents an open place.

cei

selbri variable assignment; assigns broda series pro-bridi to a selbri.

censacensa

x1 is holy/sacred to person/people/culture/religion/cult/group x2.

centicenti

x1 is a hundredth [1/100; 10-2] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

cernicerni

x1 is a morning [dawn until after typical start-of-work for locale] of day x2 at location x3.

certucertu

x1 is an expert/pro/has prowess in/is skilled at x2 (event/activity) by standard x3.

ci

digit/number: 3 (digit) [three].

cibluciblu

x1 is blood/vital fluid of organism x2.

cidjacidja

x1 is food/feed/nutriment for x2; x1 is edible/gives nutrition to x2.

cidjrspageti

x1 is a quantity of spaghetti (long, thin cylindrical pasta)

cidnicidni

x1 is a/the knee/elbow/knuckle [hinged joint, body-part] of limb x2 of body x3.

ci'ajbu

j1 is a writing desk of material j2, supported by legs/base/pedestal j3, used by writer c1.

ci'ecihe

ciste modal, 1st place used in scalar negation in system/context ...

ci'ucihu

ckilu modal, 1st place on the scale ...

ciknacikna

(adjective:) x1 is awake/alert/conscious.

cilcecilce

(adjective:) x1 is wild/untamed.

cilrecilre

x1 learns x2 (du'u) about subject x3 from source x4 (obj./event) by method x5 (event/process).

cimoi

quantified selbri: convert 3 to ordinal selbri; x1 is third among x2 ordered by rule x3.

cinfocinfo

x1 is a lion/[lioness] of species/breed x2.

cinkicinki

x1 is an insect/arthropod of species x2; [bug/beetle].

cinlacinla

x1 is thin in direction/dimension x2 by standard x3; [relatively short in smallest dimension].

cipnicipni

x1 is a bird/avian/fowl of species x2.

cipnrstrigi

x1 is an owl of species x2

cirlacirla

x1 is a quantity of/contains cheese/curd from source x2.

ciskaciska

x1 inscribes/writes x2 on display/storage medium x3 with writing implement x4; x1 is a scribe.

cisteciste

x1 (mass) is a system interrelated by structure x2 among components x3 (set) displaying x4 (ka).

citkacitka

x1 eats/ingests/consumes (transitive verb) x2.

citmau

z1=c1 is younger than z2 by amount z4.

citnocitno

x1 is young/youthful [relatively short in elapsed duration] by standard x2.

cizracizra

x1 is strange/weird/deviant/bizarre/odd to x2 in property x3 (ka).

ckajickaji

x1 has/is characterized by property/feature/trait/aspect/dimension x2 (ka); x2 is manifest in x1.

ckikuckiku

x1 is a key fitting/releasing/opening/unlocking lock x2, and having relevant properties x3.

ckuleckule

x1 is school/institute/academy at x2 teaching subject(s) x3 to audien./commun. x4 operated by x5.

cladakfu

x1 is a long knife

cladakyxa'i

x1=d1=c1 is a sword / long knife weapon for use against x2=d2 by x3 with blade of material d3 long by standard c3.

claducladu

x1 is loud/noisy at observation point x2 by standard x3.

claniclani

x1 is long in dimension/direction x2 (default longest dimension) by measurement standard x3.

cliraclira

x1 (event) is early by standard x2.

clivacliva

x1 leaves/goes away/departs/parts/separates from x2 via route x3.

cmacicmaci

x1 is a mathematics of type/describing x2.

cmacma

c1 is tiny/miniature/diminutive/very small in property c2 with criterion c3.

cmalucmalu

x1 is small in property/dimension(s) x2 (ka) as compared with standard/norm x3.

cmanacmana

x1 is a mountain/hill/mound/[rise]/[peak]/[summit]/[highlands] projecting from land mass x2.

cmaro'i

c1=r1 is a small rock of type r2 from location r3, small by standard c3. c1 is gravel.

cmavocmavo

x1 is a structure word of grammatical class x2, with meaning/function x3 in usage (language) x4.

cmenecmene

x1 (quoted word(s)) is a/the name/title/tag of x2 to/used-by namer/name-user x3 (person).

cmevla

x1 is a morphologically defined name word meaning x2 in language x3.

cmimacmima

x1 is a member/element of set x2; x1 belongs to group x2; x1 is amid/among/amongst group x2.

cnebocnebo

x1 is a/the neck [body-part] of x2; [metaphor: a relatively narrow point].

cnitacnita

x1 is directly/vertically beneath/below/under/underneath/down from x2 in frame of reference x3.

co

tanru inversion operator; "... of type ..."; allows modifier trailing sumti without sumti links.

co'a

interval event contour: at the starting point of ...; initiative >|< |.

co'e

elliptical/unspecified bridi relationship.

co'i

interval event contour: at the instantaneous point of ...; achievative/perfective; point event >|<.

co'o

vocative: partings/good-bye.

co'u

interval event contour: at the ending point of ... even if not done; cessative | >< |.

coi

vocative: greetings/hello.

coi .djan. — Hello, John.

coico'o

vocative: greetings in passing.

condicondi

x1 is deep in extent in direction/property x2 away from reference point x3 by standard x4.

cpanacpana

x1 is upon/atop/resting on/lying on [the upper surface of] x2 in frame of reference/gravity x3.

cpumi'i

l1=m1 is a tractor pulling l2.

cranecrane

x1 is anterior/ahead/forward/(in/on) the front of x2 which faces/in-frame-of-reference x3.

crepucrepu

x1 (agent) harvests/reaps/gathers crop/product/objects x2 from source/area x3.

cribecribe

x1 is a bear/ursoid of species/breed x2.

crinocrino

x1 is green/verdant [color adjective].

ctigau

g1 feeds c1 with food c2.

ctucactuca

x1 teaches audience x2 ideas/methods/lore x3 (du'u) about subject(s) x4 by method x5 (event).

cu

elidable marker: separates selbri from preceding sumti, allows preceding terminator elision.

cu'e

tense/modal question.

cu'i

attitudinal: neutral scalar attitude modifier.

cu'o

convert number to probability selbri; event x1 has probability (n) of occurring under cond. x2.

cu'ucuhu

cusku modal, 1st place (attribution/quotation) as said by source ...; used for quotation.

cuktacukta

x1 is a book containing work x2 by author x3 for audience x4 preserved in medium x5.

culnoculno

x1 is full/completely filled with x2.

cumkicumki

x1 (event/state/property) is possible under conditions x2; x1 may/might occur; x1 is a maybe.

cunsocunso

x1 is random/fortuitous/unpredictable under conditions x2, with probability distribution x3.

cupracupra

x1 produces x2 [product] by process x3.

curmicurmi

x1 (agent) lets/permits/allows x2 (event) under conditions x3; x1 grants privilege x2.

cusku

x1 (agent) expresses/says x2 (sedu'u/text/lu'e concept) for audience x3 via expressive medium x4.

cutcicutci

x1 is a shoe/boot/sandal for covering/protecting [feet/hooves] x2, and of material x3.

cuxnacuxna

x1 chooses/selects x2 [choice] from set/sequence of alternatives x3 (complete set).

cy.

letteral for c.

da

logically quantified existential pro-sumti: there exists something 1 (usually restricted).

dadgreku

x1 is a rack used to hang x2.

dadjodadjo

x1 pertains to the Taoist culture/ethos/religion in aspect x2.

dadysli

s1=d1 is a pendulum oscillating at rate/frequency s2, suspended from d2 by/at/with joint d3.

da'a

digit/number: all except n; all but n; default 1.

da'e

pro-sumti: remote future utterance; "He'll tell you tomorrow. IT will be a doozy.".

da'i

discursive: supposing - in fact.

da'inai

discursive: supposing - in fact.

da'o

discursive: cancel pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments.

da'u

pro-sumti: a remote past utterance; "She couldn't have known that IT would be true.".

dai

attitudinal modifier: marks empathetic use of preceding attitudinal; shows another's feelings.

dakfudakfu

x1 is a knife (tool) for cutting x2, with blade of material x3.

dalmikce

m1 is a doctor for animal m2=d1 of species d2 for ailment m3 using treatment m4.

dandudandu

x1 hangs/dangles/is suspended from x2 by/at/with joint x3.

danludanlu

x1 is an animal/creature of species x2; x1 is biologically animate.

darsidarsi

x1 shows audacity/chutzpah in behavior x2 (event/activity); x1 dares to do/be x2 (event/ka).

darvistci

t1 is a telescope for seeing v2=d1 which is far from d2.

daskidaski

x1 is a pocket/pouch of/in garment/item x2.

dasnidasni

x1 wears/is robed/garbed in x2 as a garment of type x3.

de

logically quantified existential pro-sumti: there exists something 2 (usually restricted).

dectidecti

x1 is a tenth [1/10; 10-1] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

degjidegji

x1 is a/the finger/digit/toe [body-part] on limb/body site x2 of body x3; [metaphor: peninsula].

degygutci

g1 is g2 inch/inches (length unit).

de'a

event contour for a temporary halt and ensuing pause in a process.

de'e

pro-sumti: a near future utterance.

de'idehi

detri modal, 1st place (for letters) dated ... ; attaches date stamp.

de'u

pro-sumti: a recent utterance.

dei

pro-sumti: this utterance.

dejnidejni

x1 owes x2 in debt/obligation to creditor x3 in return for x4 [service, loan]; x1 is a debtor.

dektodekto

x1 is ten [10; 101 ] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

delnodelno

x1 is x2 candela [metric unit] in luminosity (default is 1) by standard x3.

dencidenci

x1 is a/the tooth [body-part] of x2; (adjective:) x1 is dental.

denpadenpa

x1 awaits/waits/pauses for/until x2 at state x3 before starting/continuing x4 (activity/process).

dertudertu

x1 is a quantity of/contains/is made of dirt/soil/earth/ground from source x2 of composition x3.

derxiderxi

x1 is a heap/pile/stack/mound/hill of materials x2 at location x3.

di

logically quantified existential pro-sumti: there exists something 3 (usually restricted).

di'a

event contour for resumption of a paused process.

di'e

pro-sumti: the next utterance.

di'i

tense interval modifier: regularly; subjective tense/modal; defaults as time tense.

di'inai

tense interval modifier: irregularly/aperiodically; tense/modal; defaults as time tense.

di'u

pro-sumti: the last utterance.

dinjudinju

x1 is a building/edifice for purpose x2.

dirbadirba

x1 is dear/precious/darling to x2; x1 is emotionally valued by x2.

dircedirce

x1 radiates/emits x2 under conditions x3.

dizlodizlo

x1 is low/down/downward in frame of reference x2 as compared with baseline/standard height x3.

djedidjedi

x1 is x2 full days in duration (default is 1 day) by standard x3; (adjective:) x1 is diurnal.

djicadjica

x1 desires/wants/wishes x2 (event/state) for purpose x3.

djinedjine

x1 is a ring/annulus/torus/circle [shape/form] of material x2, inside diam. x3, outside diam. x4.

djunodjuno

x1 knows fact(s) x2 (du'u) about subject x3 by epistemology x4.

do

pro-sumti: you listener(s); identified by vocative.

do'a

discursive: generously - parsimoniously.

do'anai

discursive: generously - parsimoniously.

do'edohe

elliptical/unspecified modal.

do'i

pro-sumti: elliptical/unspecified utterance variable.

do'o

pro-sumti: you the listener & others unspecified.

do'u

elidable terminator: end vocative (often elidable).

doi

generic vocative marker; identifies intended listener; elidable after COI.

donma'o

c1 is a second person pronoun in language c4.

donridonri

x1 is the daytime of day x2 at location x3; (adjective:) x1 is diurnal (vs. nocturnal).

donta'a

x1 talks to you (i.e. whoever x1 is addressing) about x2 in language x3

dotcodotco

x1 reflects German/Germanic culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

dranidrani

x1 is correct/proper/right/perfect in property/aspect x2 (ka) in situation x3 by standard x4.

dratadrata

x1 isn't the-same-thing-as/is different-from/other-than x2 by standard x3; x1 is something else.

drudidrudi

x1 is a roof/top/ceiling/lid of x2.

du

identity selbri; = sign; x1 identically equals x2, x3, etc.; attached sumti refer to same thing.

dubjavmau

x1 is greater than or equal to x2.

dubjavme'a

x1 is less than or equal to x2

du'e

digit/number: too many; subjective.

du'iduhi

dunli modal, 1st place (equalled by) equally; as much as ...

du'u

abstractor: predication/bridi abstractor; x1 is predication [bridi] expressed in sentence x2.

dundadunda

x1 [donor] gives/donates gift/present x2 to recipient/beneficiary x3 [without payment/exchange].

dunlidunli

x1 is equal/congruent to/as much as x2 in property/dimension/quantity x3.

dy.

letteral for d.

dzipodzipo

x1 reflects Antarctican culture/nationality/geography in aspect x2.

dzukla

c1=k1 walks to k2 from k3 via route k4 using limbs k5=c3 on surface c2

.e

logical connective: sumti afterthought and.

.ebu

letteral for e.

.e'a

attitudinal: granting permission - prohibiting.

.e'e

attitudinal: competence - incompetence/inability.

.e'o

attitudinal: request - negative request.

.e'u

attitudinal: suggestion - abandon suggest - warning.

.ei

attitudinal: obligation - freedom.

fa

sumti place tag: tag 1st sumti place.

fackifacki

x1 discovers/finds out x2 (du'u) about subject/object x3; x1 finds (fi) x3 (object).

fadnifadni

x1 [member] is ordinary/common/typical/usual in property x2 (ka) among members of x3 (set).

fagrifagri

x1 is a fire/flame in fuel x2 burning-in/reacting-with oxidizer x3 (default air/oxygen).

fagyfesti

x1=fe1 is the ashes of x3=fa2, combusted by fire x2=fa1.

fa'a

location tense relation/direction; arriving at/directly towards ...

fa'o

unconditional end of text; outside regular grammar; used for computer input.

fa'u

non-logical connective: respectively; unmixed ordered distributed association.

fai

sumti place tag: tag a sumti moved out of numbered place structure; used in modal conversions.

fanmofanmo

x1 is an end/finish/termination of thing/process x2; [not necessarily implying completeness].

fanzafanza

x1 (event) annoys/irritates/bothers/distracts x2.

farlufarlu

x1 falls/drops to x2 from x3 in gravity well/frame of reference x4.

fasnufasnu

x1 (event) is an event that happens/occurs/takes place; x1 is an incident/happening/occurrence.

faufau

fasnu modal, 1st place (non-causal) in the event of ...

fe

sumti place tag: tag 2nd sumti place.

fe'a

binary mathematical operator: nth root of; inverse power [a to the 1/b power].

fe'e

mark space interval distributive aspects; labels interval tense modifiers as location-oriented.

fe'o

vocative: over and out (end discussion).

fe'u

elidable terminator: end nonce conversion of selbri to modal; usually elidable.

femtifemti

x1 is 10-15 of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

fertiferti

x1 is fertile/conducive for supporting the growth/development of x2; x1 is fruitful/prolific.

festifesti

x1(s) is/are waste product(s) [left to waste] by x2 (event/activity).

fi

sumti place tag: tag 3rd sumti place.

fi'a

sumti place tag: place structure number/tag question.

fi'efihe

finti modal, 1st place (creator) created by ...

fi'i

vocative: hospitality - inhospitality; you are welcome/ make yourself at home.

fi'o

convert selbri to nonce modal/sumti tag.

fi'u

digit/number: fraction slash; default "/n" => 1/n, "n/" => n/1, or "/" alone => golden ratio.

filsofilso

x1 reflects Palestinian culture/nationality in aspect x2.

finpefinpe

x1 is a fish of species x2 [metaphorical extension to sharks, non-fish aquatic vertebrates].

fintifinti

x1 invents/creates/composes/authors x2 for function/purpose x3 from existing elements/ideas x4.

firgai

g1 is a mask covering the face of g2=f2.

flaluflalu

x1 is a law specifying x2 (state/event) for community x3 under conditions x4 by lawgiver(s) x5.

flaume

x1 is a plum of variety x2.

flecuflecu

x1 is a current/flow/river of/in x2 flowing in direction to/towards x3 from direction/source x4.

fo

sumti place tag: tag 4th sumti place.

fo'a

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #6 (specified by goi).

fo'e

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #7 (specified by goi).

fo'i

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #8 (specified by goi).

fo'o

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #9 (specified by goi).

fo'u

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #10 (specified by goi).

foi

terminator: end composite lerfu; never elidable.

foldifoldi

x1 is a field [shape/form] of material x2; x1 is a broad uniform expanse of x2.

frasofraso

x1 reflects French/Gallic culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

frikofriko

x1 reflects African culture/nationality/geography in aspect x2.

frinufrinu

x1 is a fraction, with numerator x2, denominator x3 (x2/x3).

fu

sumti place tag: tag 5th sumti place.

fu'a

reverse Polish mathematical expression (mex) operator flag.

fu'e

begin indicator long scope.

fu'i

attitudinal modifier: easy - difficult.

fu'ivla

x1=v1=f1 is a loanword meaning x2=v2 in language x3=v3, based on word x4=f2 in language x5.

fu'o

end indicator long scope; terminates scope of all active indicators.

fy.

letteral for f.

ga

logical connective: forethought all but tanru-internal or (with gi).

gadrigadri

x1 is an article/descriptor labelling description x2 (text) in language x3 with semantics x4.

ga'e

upper-case letteral shift.

ga'i

attitudinal modifier/honorific: hauteur - equal rank - meekness; used with one of lower rank.

ga'icu'i

attitudinal modifier/honorific: hauteur - equal rank - meekness; used with one of equal rank.

ga'inai

attitudinal modifier/honorific: hauteur - equal rank - meekness; used with one of higher rank.

ga'o

closed interval bracket marker; mod. intervals in non-logical connectives; include boundaries.

ga'u

location tense relation/direction; upwards/up from ...

galfigalfi

x1 (event) modifies/alters/changes/transforms/converts x2 into x3.

galtugaltu

x1 is high/up/upward in frame of reference x2 as compared with baseline/standard height x3.

ganai

logical connective: forethought all but tanru-internal conditional/only if (with gi).

ganloganlo

x1 (portal/passage/entrance-way) is closed/shut/not open, preventing passage/access to x2 by x3 (something being blocked).

ganseganse

x1 [observer] senses/detects/notices stimulus x2 (object/nu) by means x3 under conditions x4.

gaprugapru

x1 is directly/vertically above/upwards-from x2 in gravity/frame of reference x3.

gaskre

k1=g3 is a/are the whisker(s)/sensory hair(s) /vibrissa(e) attached to k2=g1 at body part k3 for the detection of stimuli g2 under conditions g4.

gasnugasnu

x1 [person/agent] is an agentive cause of event x2; x1 does/brings about x2.

gaugau

gasnu modal, 1st place agent/actor case tag with active agent ...

ge

logical connective: forethought all but tanru-internal and (with gi).

ge'a

mathematical operator: null mathematical expression (mex) operator (used in >2-ary ops).

ge'e

attitudinal: elliptical/unspecified/non-specific emotion; no particular feeling.

ge'i

logical connective: forethought all but tanru-internal connective question (with gi).

ge'o

shift letterals to Greek alphabet.

ge'u

elidable terminator: end GOI relative phrases; usually elidable in non-complex phrases.

gei

trinary mathematical operator: order of magnitude/value/base; [b * (c to the a power)].

gekmau

x1 is happier than x2 about x3 by amount x4

gentogento

x1 reflects Argentinian culture/nationality in aspect x2.

genxugenxu

x1 is a hook/crook [shape/form] of material x2.

gerkugerku

x1 is a dog/canine/[bitch] of species/breed x2.

gerzda

z1 is a doghouse for dog z2=g1.

gi

logical connective: all but tanru-internal forethought connective medial marker.

gidvagidva

x1 (person/object/event) guides/conducts/pilots/leads x2 (active participants) in/at x3 (event).

gigdogigdo

x1 is a billion [British milliard] [109] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

gi'a

logical connective: bridi-tail afterthought or.

gi'e

logical connective: bridi-tail afterthought and.

gi'i

logical connective: bridi-tail afterthought conn question.

gi'o

logical connective: bridi-tail afterthought biconditional/iff/if-and-only-if.

gi'u

logical connective: bridi-tail afterthought whether-or-not.

girzugirzu

x1 is group/cluster/team showing common property (ka) x2 due to set x3 linked by relations x4.

gismugismu

x1 is a (Lojban) root word expressing relation x2 among argument roles x3, with affix(es) x4.

glareglare

x1 is hot/[warm] by standard x2.

glekigleki

x1 is happy/merry/glad/gleeful about x2 (event/state).

glicoglico

x1 is English/pertains to English-speaking culture in aspect x2.

go

logical connective: forethought all but tanru internal biconditional/iff/if-and-only-if(with gi).

goctigocti

x1 is 10-24 of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

go'a

pro-bridi: repeats a recent bridi (usually not the last 2).

go'e

pro-bridi: repeats the next to last bridi.

go'i

pro-bridi: preceding bridi; in answer to a yes/no question, repeats the claim, meaning yes.

go'o

pro-bridi: repeats a future bridi, normally the next one.

go'u

pro-bridi: repeats a remote past bridi.

goi

sumti assignment; used to define/assign ko'a/fo'a series pro-sumti; Latin 'sive'.

gotrogotro

x1 is 1024 of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

granagrana

x1 is a rod/pole/staff/stick/cane [shape/form] of material x2.

grutrxananase

x1 is a pineapple of species/variety x2.

gu

logical connective: forethought all but tanru-internal whether-or-not (with gi).

gugdegugde

x1 is the country of peoples x2 with land/territory x3; (people/territory relationship).

gu'a

logical connective: tanru-internal forethought or (with gi).

gu'e

logical connective: tanru-internal forethought and (with gi).

gu'i

logical connective: tanru-internal forethought question (with gi).

gu'o

logical connective: tanru-internal forethought biconditional/iff/if-and-only-if (with gi).

gu'u

logical connective: tanru-internal forethought whether-or-not (with gi).

gundigundi

x1 is industry/industrial/systematic manufacturing activity producing x2 by process/means x3.

gunsegunse

x1 is a goose/[gander] of species/breed x2.

gusnigusni

x1 [energy] is light/illumination illuminating x2 from light source x3.

gy.

letteral for g.

.i

sentence link/continuation; continuing sentences on same topic; normally elided for new speakers.

.ia

attitudinal: belief - skepticism - disbelief.

.ianai

attitudinal: belief - skepticism - disbelief.

.ibabo

And after that ...

.ibazabo

And after a while after that ...

.ibazibo

And soon after that ...

.ibu

letteral for i.

.icabo

And at the same time ...

.ie

attitudinal: agreement - disagreement.

.ienai

attitudinal: agreement - disagreement.

.iesai

attitudinal: "I fully agree"

.i'a

attitudinal: acceptance - blame.

.i'e

attitudinal: approval - non-approval - disapproval.

.i'inai

attitudinal: togetherness - privacy.

.ii

attitudinal: fear - security.

.iicai

attitudinal: "Eek!"; utmost fear

.ija

logical connective: sentence afterthought or.

.ija'ebo

And as the result ...

.ije

logical connective: sentence afterthought and.

.iki'ubo

And it's true or happens because of the reason ...

.ini'ibo

And it is logically because of ...

.io

attitudinal: respect - disrespect.

.iseju

whether or not that is tor happens rue it's true or happens that ...

.iseki'ubo

And because of that reasonit's true or happens that ...

.isemu'ibo

And that is the motive for the event ...

.iu

attitudinal: love - no love lost - hatred.

ja

logical connective: tanru-internal afterthought or.

ja'a

bridi logical affirmer; scope is an entire bridi.

ja'ejahe

jalge modal, 1st place resultingly; therefore result ...

ja'o

evidential: I conclude.

jai

convert tense/modal (tagged) place to 1st place; 1st place moves to extra FA place (fai).

jalgejalge

x1 (action/event/state) is a result/outcome/conclusion of antecedent x2 (event/state/process).

jamfujamfu

x1 is a/the foot [body-part] of x2; [metaphor: lowest portion] (adjective:) x1 is pedal.

jamnajamna

x1 (person/mass) wars against x2 over territory/matter x3; x1 is at war with x2.

jancojanco

x1 is a/the shoulder/hip/joint [body-part] attaching limb/extremity x2 to body x3.

jarcojarco

x1 (agent) shows/exhibits/displays/[reveals]/demonstrates x2 (property) to audience x3.

javnijavni

x1 is a rule prescribing/mandating/requiring x2 (event/state) within system/community x3.

jbenajbena

x1 is born to x2 at time x3 [birthday] and place x4 [birthplace]; x1 is native to (fo) x4.

jbinijbini

x1 is between/among set of points/bounds/limits x2 (set)/amidst mass x2 in property x3 (ka).

jdarijdari

x1 is firm/hard/resistant/unyielding to force x2 under conditions x3.

jdaselsku

c2 is a prayer of believer c1=l2 for deity c3 in medium c4 according to religion l3.

jdicejdice

x1 (person) decides/makes decision x2 (du'u) about matter x3 (event/state).

jdikajdika

x1 (experiencer) decreases/contracts/is reduced/diminished in property/quantity x2 by amount x3.

jdulijduli

x1 is a quantity of jelly/semisolid [texture] of material/composition including x2.

je

logical connective: tanru-internal afterthought and.

jegvojegvo

x1 pertains to the common Judeo-Christian-Moslem (Abrahamic) culture/religion/nationality in aspect x2.

je'a

scalar affirmer; denies scalar negation: Indeed!.

je'e

vocative: roger (ack) - negative acknowledge; used to acknowledge offers and thanks.

je'enai

vocative: roger (ack) - negative acknowledge; I didn't hear you.

je'i

logical connective: tanru-internal afterthought conn question.

je'o

shift letterals to Hebrew alphabet.

je'u

discursive: truth - falsity.

je'unai

discursive: truth - falsity.

jei

abstractor: truth-value abstractor; x1 is truth value of [bridi] under epistemology x2.

jelcajelca

x1 burns/[ignites/is flammable/inflammable] at temperature x2 in atmosphere x3.

jenai

logical connective: tanru-internal afterthought x but not y.

jersijersi

x1 chases/pursues/(physically) follows after x2; volition is not implied for x1 or x2.

jerxojerxo

x1 reflects Algerian culture/nationality in aspect x2.

jetcejetce

x1 is a jet [expelled stream] of material x2 expelled from x3.

jetnujetnu

x1 (du'u) is true/truth by standard/epistemology/metaphysics x2.

jgarijgari

x1 grasps/holds/clutches/seizes/grips/[hugs] x2 with x3 (part of x1) at locus x4 (part of x2).

ji

logical connective: sumti afterthought connective question.

jibnijibni

x1 is near/close to/approximates x2 in property/quantity x3 (ka/ni).

ji'a

discursive: additionally.

ji'asai

even

ji'i

digit/number: approximately (default the typical value in this context) (number).

ji'ujihu

jicmu modal, 1st place (assumptions); given that ...; based on ...

jintojinto

x1 is a well/spring of fluid x2 at location x3.

jinvijinvi

x1 thinks/opines x2 [opinion] (du'u) is true about subject/issue x3 on grounds x4.

jitrojitro

x1 has control over/harnesses/manages/directs/conducts x2 in x3 (activity/event/performance).

jo

logical connective: tanru-internal afterthought biconditional/iff/if-and-only-if.

jo'a

discursive: metalinguistic affirmer.

jo'e

non-logical connective: union of sets.

jo'i

join mathematical expression (mex) operands into an array.

jo'o

shift letterals to Arabic alphabet.

jo'u

non-logical connective: in common with; along with (unmixed).

joi

non-logical connective: mixed conjunction; "and" meaning "mixed together", forming a mass.

jordojordo

x1 reflects Jordanian culture/nationality in aspect x2.

ju

logical connective: tanru-internal afterthought whether-or-not.

jubmejubme

x1 is a table/flat solid upper surface of material x2, supported by legs/base/pedestal x3.

ju'a

evidential: I state - (default) elliptical/non-specific basis.

ju'i

vocative: attention - at ease - ignore me.

ju'o

attitudinal modifier: certainty - uncertainty - impossibility.

ju'u

binary mathematical operator: number base; [a interpreted in the base b].

jukpajukpa

x1 cooks/prepares food-for-eating x2 by recipe/method x3 (process).

jundijundi

x1 is attentive towards/attends/tends/pays attention to object/affair x2.

jungojungo

x1 reflects Chinese [Mandarin, Cantonese, Wu, etc.] culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

junlajunla

x1 is clock/watch/timer measuring time units x2 to precision x3 with timing mechanism/method x4.

jy.

letteral for j.

ka

abstractor: property/quality abstractor (-ness); x1 is quality/property exhibited by [bridi].

kabrikabri

x1 is a cup/glass/tumbler/mug/vessel/[bowl] containing contents x2, and of material x3.

kadnokadno

x1 reflects Canadian culture/nationality in aspect x2.

ka'akaha

klama modal, 1st place gone to by ...

ka'e

modal aspect: innate capability; possibly unrealized.

ka'o

digit/number: imaginary i; square root of -1.

ka'u

evidential: I know by cultural means (myth or custom).

kaikai

ckaji modal, 1st place characterizing ...

kajnakajna

x1 is a shelf/counter/bar in/on/attached to supporting object x2, for purpose x3.

kaknekakne

x1 is able to do/be/capable of doing/being x2 (event/state) under conditions x3 (event/state).

kalrikalri

x1 (portal/passage/entrance-way) is open/ajar/not shut permitting passage/access to x2 by x3.

kalselvi'i

x1=v2 is a tear/tear fluid of x2=v1.

kambla

x1 is blueness

kanjikanji

x1 calculates/reckons/computes x2 [value (ni)/state] from data x3 by process x4.

kanlakanla

x1 is a/the eye [body-part] of x2; [metaphor: sensory apparatus]; (adjective:) x1 is ocular.

kanrokanro

x1 is healthy/fit/well/in good health by standard x2.

kansakansa

x1 is with/accompanies/is a companion of x2, in state/condition/enterprise x3 (event/state).

karcekarce

x1 is a car/automobile/truck/van [a wheeled motor vehicle] for carrying x2, propelled by x3

karcykla

x1 comes/goes to x2 from x3 via route x4 using car x5

kau

discursive: marks word serving as focus of indirect question: "I know WHO went to the store".

kavbukavbu

x1 captures/catches/apprehends/seizes/nabs x2 with trap/restraint x3.

ke

start grouping of tanru, etc; ... type of ... ; overrides normal tanru left grouping.

ke'a

pro-sumti: relativized sumti (object of relative clause).

ke'e

elidable terminator: end of tanru left grouping override (usually elidable).

ke'i

open interval bracket marker; modifies intervals in non-logical connectives; exclude boundaries.

ke'o

vocative: please repeat.

ke'u

discursive: repeating - continuing.

ke'unai

discursive: repeating - continuing.

kei

elidable terminator: end abstraction bridi (often elidable).

kelcikelci

x1 [agent] plays with plaything/toy x2.

kelvokelvo

x1 is x2 degree(s) Kelvin [metric unit] in temperature (default is 1) by standard x3.

kerlokerlo

x1 is a/the ear [body-part] of x2; [metaphor: sensory apparatus, information gathering].

ketcoketco

x1 reflects South American culture/nationality/geography in aspect x2.

kevnakevna

x1 is a cavity/hole/hollow/cavern in x2; x1 is concave within x2; x2 is hollow at locus x1.

ki

tense/modal: set/use tense default; establishes new open scope space/time/modal reference base.

ki'a

attitudinal question: confusion about something said.

ki'o

digit/number: number comma; thousands.

ki'ukihu

krinu modal, 1st place (justified by) justifiably; because of reason ...

kiltokilto

x1 is a thousand [1000; 103] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

kistokisto

x1 reflects Pakistani/Pashto culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

klamaklama

x1 comes/goes to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 using means/vehicle x5.

klesiklesi

x1 (mass/si'o) is a class/category/subgroup/subset within x2 with defining property x3 (ka).

ko

pro-sumti: you (imperative); make it true for you, the listener.

ko'a

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #1 (specified by goi).

ko'e

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #2 (specified by goi).

ko'i

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #3 (specified by goi).

ko'o

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #4 (specified by goi).

ko'u

pro-sumti: he/she/it/they #5 (specified by goi).

kojnakojna

x1 is a corner/point/at-least-3-dimensional [solid] angle [shape/form] in/on x2, of material x3.

korbikorbi

x1 is an edge/margin/border/curb/boundary of x2 next-to/bordering-on x3.

korcukorcu

(adjective:) x1 is bent/crooked/not straight or direct/[twisted]/folded.

kostakosta

x1 is a coat/jacket/sweater/cloak/[cape/shawl/pullover] [extra outer garment] of material x2.

krasikrasi

x1 (site/event) is a source/start/beginning/origin of x2 (object/event/process).

krecau

x1 (body or body part) is hairless

krefukrefu

x1 (event) is the x3'rd recurrence/repetition of x2 (abstract); x2 happens again in [form] x1.

kricikrici

x1 believes [regardless of evidence/proof] belief/creed x2 (du'u) is true/assumed about subject x3.

krinukrinu

x1 (event/state) is a reason/justification/explanation for/causing/permitting x2 (event/state).

krixakrixa

x1 cries out/yells/howls sound x2; x1 is a crier.

krorinsa

r1=k1 curtseys in front of r2.

krujikruji

x1 is made of/contains/is a quantity of cream/emulsion/puree [consistency] of composition x2.

ku

elidable terminator: end description, modal, or negator sumti; often elidable.

kuarka

x1 is a quark with flavor x2.

kuclikucli

x1 is curious/wonders about/is interested in/[inquisitive about] x2 (object/abstract).

ku'a

non-logical connective: intersection of sets.

ku'e

elidable terminator: end mathematical (mex) forethought (Polish) expression; often elidable.

ku'i

discursive: however/but/in contrast.

ku'o

elidable terminator: end NOI relative clause; always elidable, but preferred in complex clauses.

kuldi'u

d1 is a building housing school c1 teaching subject c3 to audience c4.

kumfakumfa

x1 is a room of/in structure x2 surrounded by partitions/walls/ceiling/floor x3 (mass/jo'u).

kuntikunti

x1 [container] is empty/vacant of x2 [material]; x1 is hollow.

kurjikurji

x1 takes-care-of/looks after/attends to/provides for/is caretaker for x2 (object/event/person).

ky.

letteral for k.

la

name descriptor: the one(s) called ... ; takes name or selbri description.

ladruladru

x1 is made of/contains/is a quantity of milk from source x2; (adjective:) x1 is lactic/dairy.

la'a

discursive: probability - improbability.

la'asai

discursive: most likely

la'e

the referent of (indirect pointer); uses the referent of a sumti as the desired sumti.

la'edi'e

pro-sumti: the referent of the next utterance; the state to be describe: "WHAT was fun is ...".

la'edi'u

pro-sumti: the referent of the last utterance; the state described: "IT was fun".

la'i

name descriptor: the set of those named ... ; takes name or selbri description.

la'o

delimited non-Lojban name; the resulting quote sumti is treated as a name.

la'ulahu

klani modal, 1st place (amount) quantifying ...; being a quantity of ...

lai

name descriptor: the mass of individual(s) named ... ; takes name or selbri description.

lanmelanme

x1 is a sheep/[lamb/ewe/ram] of species/breed x2 of flock x3.

lantro

x1 shepherds flock x2 composed of sheep x3

lanzulanzu

x1 (mass) is a family with members including x2 bonded/tied/joined according to standard x3.

latmolatmo

x1 reflects Latin/Roman/Romance culture/empire/language in aspect x2.

lau

2-word letteral/shift: punctuation mark or special symbol follows.

le

non-veridical descriptor: the one(s) described as ...

lebnalebna

x1 takes/gets/gains/obtains/seizes/[removes] x2 (object/property) from x3 (possessor).

ledu'u

bridi descriptor: that I describe as a proposition ...

lego'i

description pro-sumti: reuses the value of the x1 of the previous bridi

le'aleha

klesi modal, 1st place (scalar set) in/of category ...

le'e

non-veridical descriptor: the stereotype of those described as ...

le'i

non-veridical descriptor: the set of those described as ..., treated as a set.

le'o

attitudinal modifier: aggressive - passive - defensive.

le'u

end quote of questionable or out-of-context text; not elidable.

lei

non-veridical descriptor: the mass of individual(s) described as ...

leka

property descriptor: that I describe as ...-ness

lenei

description pro-sumti: reuses the value of the x1 of the current bridi

lenkulenku

x1 is cold/cool by standard x2.

lenu

specific event descriptor: contraction of {le nu} and identical in meaning.

lercilerci

x1 (event) is late by standard x2.

lerfulerfu

x1 (la'e zo BY/word-bu) is a letter/digit/symbol in alphabet/character-set x2 representing x3.

lervla

v1 is a word which stands for the letter/digit/symbol v2=l1 in language v3.

lesi'o

idea descriptor: that I describe as a concept ...

li

the number/evaluated expression; convert number/operand/evaluated math expression to sumti.

libjolibjo

x1 reflects Libyan culture/nationality in aspect x2.

lifrilifri

x1 [person/passive/state] undergoes/experiences x2 (event/experience); x2 happens to x1.

li'i

abstractor: experience abstractor; x1 is x2's experience of [bridi] (participant or observer).

li'o

discursive: omitted text (quoted material).

li'u

elidable terminator: end grammatical quotation; seldom elidable except at end of text.

lijdalijda

x1 is a religion of believers including x2 sharing common beliefs/practices/tenets including x3.

lijgri

g1 is a row (group) showing common property (ka) g2 due to set g3 linked by relations g4.

lindilindi

x1 is lightning/electrical arc/thunderbolt striking at/extending to x2 from x3.

linjilinji

x1 is a line/among lines [1-dimensional shape/form] defined by set of points x2.

linsilinsi

x1 is a length of chain/links of material x2 with link properties x3.

lisrilisri

x1 is a story/tale/yarn/narrative about plot/subject/moral x2 by storyteller x3 to audience x4.

listeliste

x1 (physical object) is a list/catalog/register of sequence/set x2 in order x3 in medium x4.

litkilitki

x1 is liquid/fluid, of composition/material including x2, under conditions x3.

litrulitru

x1 travels/journeys/goes/moves via route x2 using means/vehicle x3; x1 is a traveller.

lo

descriptor: the one, which (is / does) ... / those, which (are / do) ...

logjilogji

x1 [rules/methods] is a logic for deducing/concluding/inferring/reasoning to/about x2 (du'u).

lo'a

shift letterals to Lojban (Roman) alphabet.

lo'e

veridical descriptor: the typical one(s) who really is(are) ...

lo'i

veridical descriptor: the set of those that really are ..., treated as a set.

lo'o

elidable terminator: end math express.(mex) sumti; end mex-to-sumti conversion; usually elidable.

lo'u

start questionable/out-of-context quote; text should be Lojban words, but needn't be grammatical.

loi

veridical descriptor: the mass of individual(s) that is(are) ...

.lojban.

Lojban.

lojbangirz

Logical Language Group (LLG)

lojbaugri

x1 is the Logical Language Group (LLG).

lojbolojbo

x1 reflects [Loglandic]/Lojbanic language/culture/nationality/community in aspect x2.

loldiloldi

x1 is a floor/bottom/ground of x2.

lonu

event descriptor: contraction of {lo nu} and identical in meaning.

lu

start grammatical quotation; quoted text should be grammatical on its own.

lubnolubno

x1 reflects Lebanese culture/nationality in aspect x2.

lubu

letteral for a quotation

lu'a

the members of the set/components of the mass; converts another description type to individuals.

lu'e

the symbol for (indirect discourse); uses the symbol/word(s) for a sumti as the desired sumti.

lu'i

the set with members; converts another description type to a set of the members.

lu'o

the mass composed of; converts another description type to a mass composed of the members.

lu'u

elidable terminator: end of sumti qualifiers; usually elidable except before a sumti.

lujvolujvo

x1 (text) is a compound predicate word with meaning x2 and arguments x3 built from metaphor x4.

ly.

letteral for l.

ma

pro-sumti: sumti question (what/who/how/why/etc.); appropriately fill in sumti blank.

mablamabla

x1 is execrable/deplorable/wretched/shitty/awful/rotten/miserable/contemptible/crappy/inferior/low-quality in property x2 by standard x3; x1 stinks/sucks in aspect x2 according to x3.

ma'a

pro-sumti: me/we the speaker(s)/author(s) & you the listener(s) & others unspecified.

ma'imahi

manri modal, 1st place (by standard 2) in reference frame ...

ma'o

convert letteral string or other mathematical expression (mex) operand to mex operator.

ma'u

digit/number: plus sign; positive number; default any positive.

mai

utterance ordinal suffix; converts a number to an ordinal, such as an item or paragraph number.

makau

indirect question as in "I know WHO she was"

mamtamamta

x1 is a mother of x2; x1 bears/mothers/acts maternally toward x2; [not necessarily biological].

mancimanci

x1 feels wonder/awe/marvels about x2.

mankumanku

x1 is dark/lacking in illumination.

maptimapti

x1 fits/matches/suits/is compatible/appropriate/corresponds to/with x2 in property/aspect x3.

marjimarji

x1 is material/stuff/matter of type/composition including x2 in shape/form x3.

masnomasno

x1 is slow/sluggish at doing/being/bringing about x2 (event/state).

matnematne

x1 is a quantity of/contains butter/oleo/margarine/shortening from source x2.

maumau

zmadu modal, 1st place (a greater) exceeded by ... ; usually a sumti modifier.

me

convert sumti to selbri/tanru element; x1 is specific to [sumti] in aspect x2.

megdomegdo

x1 is a million [106] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

me'ameha

mleca modal, 1st place (a lesser) undercut by ... ; usually a sumti modifier.

me'emehe

cmene modal, 1st place (requires quote) with name ...; so-called ...

me'i

digit/number: less than.

me'o

the mathematical expression (unevaluated); convert unevaluated mathematical expression to sumti.

me'u

elidable terminator: end sumti that was converted to selbri; usually elidable.

mei

convert number to cardinality selbri; x1 is a mass formed from a set x2 of n members, one or more of which is/are x3, measured relative to the set x4.

meksomekso

x1 [quantifier/expression] is a mathematical expression interpreted under rules/convention x2.

melbimelbi

x1 is beautiful/pleasant to x2 in aspect x3 (ka) by aesthetic standard x4.

meljomeljo

x1 reflects Malaysian/Malay culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

menlimenli

x1 is a mind/intellect/psyche/mentality/[consciousness] of body x2.

mensimensi

x1 is a sister of/sororal to x2 by bond/tie/standard/parent(s) x3; [not necessarily biological].

merkomerko

x1 pertains to USA/American culture/nationality/dialect in aspect x2.

mexnomexno

x1 reflects Mexican culture/nationality in aspect x2.

mi

pro-sumti: me/we the speaker(s)/author(s); identified by self-vocative.

midjumidju

x1 is in/at the middle/center/midpoint/[is a focus] of x2; (adjective:) x1 is central.

mi'a

pro-sumti: me/we the speaker(s)/author(s) & others unspecified, but not you, the listener.

mi'e

self vocative: self-introduction - denial of identity; identifies speaker.

mi'i

non-logical interval connective: ordered components: ... center, ... range surrounding center.

mi'o

pro-sumti: me/we the speaker(s)/author(s) & you the listener(s).

mi'u

discursive: ditto.

mikcemikce

x1 doctors/treats/nurses/[cures]/is physician/midwife to x2 for ailment x3 by treatment/cure x4.

mikrimikri

x1 is a millionth [10-6] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

miltimilti

x1 is a thousandth [1/1000; 10-3] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

milxemilxe

x1 is mild/non-extreme/gentle/middling/somewhat in property x2 (ka); x1 is not very x2.

mindeminde

x1 issues commands/orders to x2 for result x3 (event/state) to happen; x3 is commanded to occur.

minliminli

x1 is x2 (default 1) long local distance unit(s) [non-metric], x3 subunits, standard x4.

mintumintu

x1 is the same/identical thing as x2 by standard x3; (x1 and x2 interchangeable).

misromisro

x1 reflects Egyptian culture/nationality in aspect x2.

mixremixre

x1 (mass) is a mixture/blend/colloid/commingling with ingredients including x2.

mlanamlana

x1 is to the side of/lateral to x2 and facing x3 from point of view/in-frame-of-reference x4.

mlatumlatu

x1 is a cat/[puss/pussy/kitten] [feline animal] of species/breed x2; (adjective:) x1 is feline.

mlecamleca

x1 is less than x2 in property/quantity x3 (ka/ni) by amount x4.

mo

pro-bridi: bridi/selbri/brivla question.

mo'a

digit/number: too few; subjective.

mo'e

convert sumti to mex operand; sample use in story arithmetic: [3 apples] + [3 apples] = what.

mo'i

mark motions in space-time.

mo'o

higher-order utterance ordinal suffix; converts a number to ordinal, usually a section/chapter.

mo'u

interval event contour: at the natural ending point of ...; completive | >|<.

moi

convert number to ordinal selbri; x1 is (n)th member of set x2 ordered by rule x3.

mojysu'a

s1 is a structure of parts s2 as a monument/memorial to m3.

mokcamokca

x1 is a point/instant/moment [0-dimensional shape/form] in/on/at time/place x2.

molromolro

x1 is x2 mole(s) [metric unit] in substance (default is 1) by standard x3.

morjimorji

x1 remembers/recalls/recollects fact(s)/memory x2 (du'u) about subject x3.

morkomorko

x1 reflects Moroccan culture/nationality in aspect x2.

morsimorsi

x1 is dead/has ceased to be alive.

mrostu

s1 is the grave/tomb of m1=s2.

mu

digit/number: 5 (digit) [five].

mu'a

discursive: for example - omitting - end examples.

mu'anai

discursive: for example - omitting - end examples.

mu'e

abstractor: achievement (event) abstractor; x1 is the event-as-a-point/achievement of [bridi].

mu'imuhi

mukti modal, 1st place because of motive ...

mu'onai

vocative: over (response OK) - more to come.

muktimukti

x1 (action/event/state) motivates/is a motive/incentive for action/event x2, per volition of x3.

mulgri

g1=m1 is a complete set showing common property (ka) g2, complete by standard m3.

mulnomulno

x1 (event) is complete/done/finished; x1 (object) has become whole in property x2 by standard x3.

murtamurta

x1 is a curtain/blinds/drapes for covering/obscuring aperture x2, and made of material x3.

muslomuslo

x1 pertains to the Islamic/Moslem/Koranic [Quranic] culture/religion/nation in aspect x2.

mutcemutce

x1 is much/extreme in property x2 (ka), towards x3 extreme/direction; x1 is, in x2, very x3.

muvdumuvdu

x1 (object) moves to destination/receiver x2 [away] from origin x3 over path/route x4.

my.

letteral for m.

na

bridi contradictory negator; scope is an entire bridi; logically negates in some cmavo compounds.

na'a

cancel all letteral shifts.

na'e

contrary scalar negator: other than ...; not ...; a scale or set is implied.

na'i

discursive: metalinguistic negator.

na'o

tense interval modifier: characteristically/typically; tense/modal; defaults as time tense.

na'u

convert selbri to mex operator; used to create less-used operators using fu'ivla, lujvo, etc.

na'ujbi

x1 is approximately equal to x2.

nai

attached to cmavo to negate them; various negation-related meanings.

naja

logical connective: tanru-internal afterthought conditional/only if.

najnimre

x1 is an orange of variety x2.

naku

(adverbial) bridi contradictory negator; "it is not true that...."; negates the bridi as well as any other adverbial or quantifier located on its right.

nakykemcinctu

x1 is a male teacher of sexuality to audience x2.

namcunamcu

x1 (li) is a number/quantifier/digit/value/figure (noun); refers to the value and not the symbol.

nanbananba

x1 is a quantity of/contains bread [leavened or unleavened] made from grains x2.

nanlananla

x1 is a boy/lad [young male person] of age x2 immature by standard x3.

nanmunanmu

x1 is a man/men; x1 is a male humanoid person [not necessarily adult].

nanvinanvi

x1 is a billionth/thousand-millionth [10-9] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

nau

tense: refers to current space/time reference absolutely.

ne

non-restrictive relative phrase marker: which incidentally is associated with ...

ne'a

location tense relation/direction; approximating/next to ...

ne'i

location tense relation/direction; within/inside of/into ...

nei

pro-bridi: repeats the current bridi.

ni

abstractor: quantity/amount abstractor; x1 is quantity/amount of [bridi] measured on scale x2.

niblinibli

x1 logically necessitates/entails/implies action/event/state x2 under rules/logic system x3.

nictenicte

x1 is a nighttime of day x2 at location x3; (adjective:) x1 is at night/nocturnal.

ni'a

location tense relation/direction; downwards/down from ...

ni'e

convert selbri to mex operand; used to create new non-numerical quantifiers; e.g. "herd" of oxen.

ni'inihi

nibli modal, 1st place logically; logically because ...

ni'o

discursive: paragraph break; introduce new topic.

ni'u

digit/number: minus sign; negative number); default any negative.

nimrenimre

x1 is a quantity of citrus [fruit/tree, etc.] of species/strain x2.

ninmuninmu

x1 is a woman/women; x1 is a female humanoid person [not necessarily adult].

nitcunitcu

x1 needs/requires/is dependent on/[wants] necessity x2 for purpose/action/stage of process x3.

nixlinixli

x1 is a girl [young female person] of age x2 immature by standard x3.

no

digit/number: 0 (digit) [zero].

noblinobli

x1 is noble/aristocratic/elite/high-born/titled in/under culture/society/standard x2.

noda

logically quantified sumti: nothing at all (unless restricted).

no'a

pro-bridi: repeats the bridi in which this one is embedded.

no'e

midpoint scalar negator: neutral point between je'a and to'e; "not really".

no'i

discursive: paragraph break; resume previous topic.

no'o

digit/number: typical/average value.

no'u

non-restrictive appositive phrase marker: which incidentally is the same thing as ...

noi

non-restrictive relative clause; attaches subordinate bridi with incidental information.

nolraitru

t1=n1 is a regent/monarch of t2 by standard n2.

noroi

tense interval modifier: never; objectively quantified tense; defaults as time tense.

nu

abstractor: generalized event abstractor; x1 is state/process/achievement/activity of [bridi].

nu'a

convert mathematical expression (mex) operator to a selbri/tanru component.

nu'e

vocative: promise - promise release - un-promise.

nu'i

start forethought termset construct; marks start of place structure set with logical connection.

nu'o

modal aspect: can but has not; unrealized potential.

nu'u

elidable terminator: end forethought termset; usually elidable except with following sumti.

nuncti

n1 is an event at which c1 eat(s) c2.

nunctu

x1 (nu) is an event in which x2 teaches x3 facts x4 (du'u) about x5 by means x6; x1 is a lesson given by x2 to x3.

nunkla

n1 is a passage where goer k1 comes/goes to destination k2 from origin k3 via route k4 using means/vehicle k5.

nuprenupre

x1 (agent) promises/commits/assures/threatens x2 (event/state) to x3 [beneficiary/victim].

nuzlo

x1 reflects New Zealand culture/nationality/geography/dialect in aspect x2.

ny.

letteral for n.

.o

logical connective: sumti afterthought biconditional/iff/if-and-only-if.

.obu

letteral for o.

.o'e

attitudinal: closeness - distance.

.o'ocu'i

attitudinal: patience - mere tolerance - anger.

.o'u

attitudinal: relaxation - composure - stress.

.oi

attitudinal: complaint - pleasure.

.oinai

attitudinal: complaint - pleasure.

.onai

logical connective: sumti afterthought exclusive or; Latin 'aut'.

pa

digit/number: 1 (digit) [one].

pacnapacna

x1 hopes/wishes for/desires x2 (event), expected likelihood x3 (0-1); x1 hopes that x2 happens.

pacru'i

x1 is an evil spirit / demon

pagbupagbu

x1 is a part/component/piece/portion/segment of x2 [where x2 is a whole/mass]; x2 is partly x1.

pagrepagre

x1 passes through/penetrates barrier/medium/portal x2 to destination side x3 from origin side x4.

pa'e

discursive: justice - prejudice.

pa'enai

discursive: justice - prejudice.

pa'o

location tense relation/direction; transfixing/passing through ...

pai

digit/number: pi (approximately 3.1416...); the constant defined by the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of all circles.

paltapalta

x1 is a plate/dish/platter/saucer [flat/mildly concave food service bed] made of material x2.

pamai

discursive: first utterance ordinal.

pamoi

quantified selbri: convert 1 to ordinal selbri; x1 is first among x2 ordered by rule x3.

pancipanci

x1 is an odor/fragrance/scent/smell emitted by x2 and detected by observer/sensor x3.

pare'uku

for the first time

paso

number/quantity: 19 [nineteen].

patyta'a

p1=t1 complains verbally to p3=t2 about p2=t3 in language t4

pau

discursive: optional question premarker.

paunai

discursive: unreal/rhetorical question follows.

pe

restrictive relative phrase marker: which is associated with ...; loosest associative/possessive.

pe'a

marks a construct as figurative (non-literal/metaphorical) speech/text.

pe'e

marks the following connective as joining termsets.

pe'i

evidential: I opine (subjective claim).

pe'o

forethought flag for mathematical expression (mex) Polish (forethought) operator.

pei

attitudinal: attitudinal question; how do you feel about it? with what intensity?.

peljipelji

x1 is paper from source x2.

pelnimre

x1 is a lemon of variety x2.

pelxupelxu

x1 is yellow/golden [color adjective].

pendopendo

x1 is/acts as a friend of/to x2 (experiencer); x2 befriends x1.

penmipenmi

x1 meets/encounters x2 at/in location x3.

pensipensi

x1 thinks/considers/cogitates/reasons/is pensive about/reflects upon subject/concept x2.

petsopetso

x1 is 1015 of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

pezlipezli

x1 is a leaf of plant x2; x1 is foliage of x2.

pi

digit/number: radix (number base) point; default decimal.

pictipicti

x1 is a trillionth [10-12] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

pi'a

n-ary mathematical operator: operands are vectors to be treated as matrix rows.

pi'e

digit/number:separates digits for base >16, not current standard, or variable (e.g. time, date).

pi'i

n-ary mathematical operator: times; multiplication operator; [(((a * b) * c) * ...)].

pi'opiho

pilno modal, 1st place used by ...

pi'u

non-logical connective: cross product; Cartesian product of sets.

pilnopilno

x1 uses/employs x2 [tool, apparatus, machine, agent, acting entity, material] for purpose x3.

pimlupimlu

x1 is a/the feather/plume(s)/plumage [body-part] of animal/species x2.

pintapinta

x1 is flat/level/horizontal in gravity/frame of reference x2.

pinxepinxe

x1 (agent) drinks/imbibes beverage/drink/liquid refreshment x2 from/out-of container/source x3.

piro

number: all of.

piso'a

number: almost all of.

piso'u

number: a little of.

pisu'o

number: at least some of.

pixrapixra

x1 is a picture/illustration representing/showing x2, made by artist x3 in medium x4.

platuplatu

x1 (agent) plans/designs/plots plan/arrangement/plot/[schematic] x2 for state/process x3.

plipeplipe

x1 (agent/object) leaps/jumps/springs/bounds to x2 from x3 reaching height x4 propelled by x5.

plukapluka

x1 (event/state) seems pleasant to/pleases x2 under conditions x3.

plutapluta

x1 is a route/path/way/course/track to x2 from x3 via/defined by points including x4 (set).

po

restrictive relative phrase marker: which is specific to ...; normal possessive physical/legal.

po'e

restrictive relative phrase marker: which belongs to ... ; inalienable possession.

po'o

discursive: uniquely, only, solely: the only relevant case.

po'u

restrictive appositive phrase marker: which is the same thing as.

poi

restrictive relative clause; attaches subordinate bridi with identifying information to a sumti.

poljepolje

x1 (force) folds/creases x2 at locus/loci/forming crease(s)/bend(s) x3.

polnopolno

x1 reflects Polynesian/Oceanian (geographic region) culture/nationality/languages in aspect x2.

ponjoponjo

x1 reflects Japanese culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

ponseponse

x1 possesses/owns/has x2 under law/custom x3; x1 is owner/proprietor of x2 under x3.

porsiporsi

x1 [ordered set] is sequenced/ordered/listed by comparison/rules x2 on unordered set x3.

portoporto

x1 reflects Portuguese culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

praliprali

x1 is a profit/gain/benefit/advantage to x2 accruing/resulting from activity/process x3.

prenuprenu

x1 is a person/people (noun) [not necessarily human]; x1 displays personality/a persona.

pretipreti

x1 (quoted text) is a question/query about subject x2 by questioner x3 to audience x4.

prijeprije

x1 is wise/sage about matter x2 (abstraction) to observer x3.

prinaprina

x1 is a print/impression/image on/in surface x2 of/made by/using tool/press/implement/object x3.

pritupritu

x1 is to the right/right-hand side of x2 which faces/in-frame-of-reference x3.

pu

time tense relation/direction: did [selbri]; before/prior to [sumti]; default past tense.

puba

time tense: was going to; (tense/modal).

pu'i

modal aspect: can and has; demonstrated potential.

pu'o

interval event contour: in anticipation of ...; until ... ; inchoative ----| |.

pu'u

abstractor: process (event) abstractor; x1 is process of [bridi] proceeding in stages x2.

puljipulji

x1 is a police officer/[enforcer/vigilante] enforcing law(s)/rule(s)/order x2.

punjipunji

x1 (agent) puts/places/sets x2 on/at surface/locus x3.

purcipurci

x1 is in the past of/earlier than/before x2 in time sequence; x1 is former; x2 is latter.

purdipurdi

x1 is a garden/tended/cultivated field of family/community/farmer x2 growing plants/crop x3.

py.

letteral for p.

ra

pro-sumti: a recent sumti before the last one, as determined by back-counting rules.

racturactu

x1 is a rabbit/hare/[doe] of species/breed x2.

radnoradno

x1 is x2 radian(s) [metric unit] in angular measure (default is 1) by standard x3.

rafsirafsi

x1 is an affix/suffix/prefix/combining-form for word/concept x2, form/properties x3, language x4.

ra'araha

srana modal, 1st place pertained to by ... (generally more specific).

ra'e

digit/number: repeating digits (of a decimal) follow.

ra'irahi

krasi modal, 1st place from source/origin/starting point ...

ra'o

flag GOhA to indicate pro-assignment context updating for all pro-assigns in referenced bridi.

ra'u

discursive: chiefly - equally - incidentally.

ra'ucu'i

discursive: chiefly - equally - incidentally.

ra'unai

discursive: chiefly - equally - incidentally.

rairai

traji modal, 1st place with superlative ...

raksorakso

x1 reflects Iraqi culture/nationality in aspect x2.

rakturaktu

x1 (object/person/event/situation) troubles/disturbs x2 (person) causing problem(s) x3.

raljuralju

x1 is principal/chief/leader/main/[staple], most significant among x2 (set) in property x3 (ka).

ranjiranji

x1 (event/state) continues/persists over interval x2; x1 (property - ka) is continuous over x2.

rarnararna

x1 is natural/spontaneous/instinctive, not [consciously] caused by person(s).

ratcuratcu

x1 is a rat of species/breed x2.

rau

digit/number: enough; subjective.

re

digit/number: 2 (digit) [two].

re'i

vocative: ready to receive - not ready to receive.

re'inai

vocative: ready to receive - not ready to receive.

re'o

location tense relation/direction; adjacent to/touching/contacting ...

re'u

converts number to an objectively quantified ordinal tense interval modifier; defaults to time.

remai

discursive: second utterance ordinal.

remei

quantified selbri: convert 2 to cardinal selbri; x1 is a set with the pair of members x2.

remnaremna

x1 is a human/human being/man (non-specific gender-free sense); (adjective:) x1 is human.

rere'u

for the second time ...

reroi

tense interval modifier: twice; objectively quantified tense; defaults as time tense.

retsku

c1=p3 asks/puts question c2=p1 (sedu'u/text/lu'e concept) of/to c3=p4 via expressive medium c4 about subject p2.

ri

pro-sumti: the last sumti, as determined by back-counting rules.

ricfuricfu

x1 is rich/wealthy in goods/possessions/property/aspect x2.

rignirigni

x1 is repugnant to/causes disgust to x2 under conditions x3.

ri'ariha

rinka modal, 1st place (phys./mental) causal because ...

ri'e

attitudinal modifier: release of emotion - emotion restraint.

rinkarinka

x1 (event/state) effects/physically causes effect x2 (event/state) under conditions x3.

rirxerirxe

x1 is a river of land mass x2, draining watershed x3 into x4/terminating at x4.

risnarisna

x1 is a/the heart [body-part] of x2; [emotional/shape metaphors are NOT culturally neutral].

ro

digit/number: each, all.

ro'a

emotion category/modifier: social - antisocial.

ro'anai

emotion category/modifier: social - antisocial.

ro'e

emotion category/modifier: mental - mindless.

ro'o

emotion category/modifier: physical - denying physical.

ro'u

emotion category/modifier: sexual - sexual abstinence.

roi

converts number to an objectively quantified tense interval modifier; defaults to time tense.

romai

discursive utterance ordinal: finally; last utterance ordinal.

ropnoropno

x1 reflects European culture/nationality/geography/Indo-European languages in aspect x2.

ru

pro-sumti: a remote past sumti, before all other in-use backcounting sumti.

rubleruble

x1 is weak/feeble/frail in property/quality/aspect x2 (ka) by standard x3.

ru'a

evidential: I postulate.

ru'e

attitudinal: weak intensity attitude modifier.

ru'i

tense interval modifier: continuously; subjective tense/modal; defaults as time tense.

ru'inai

tense interval modifier: occasional/intermittent/discontinuous; defaults as time tense.

ru'o

shift letterals to Cyrillic alphabet.

ru'u

location tense relation/direction; surrounding/annular ...

ruskorusko

x1 reflects Russian culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

rutrceraso

x1 is a cherry of species x2.

ry.

letteral for r.

sa

erase complete or partial utterance; next word shows how much erasing to do.

sadjosadjo

x1 reflects Saudi Arabian culture/nationality in aspect x2.

sa'a

discursive: material inserted by editor/narrator (bracketed text).

sa'enai

discursive: precisely speaking - loosely speaking.

sa'i

n-ary mathematical operator: operands are vectors to be treated as matrix columns.

sa'unai

discursive: simply - elaborating.

sai

attitudinal: moderate intensity attitude modifier.

saklisakli

x1 slides/slips/glides on x2.

saktasakta

x1 is made of/contains/is a quantity of sugar [sweet edible] from source x2 of composition x3.

salcisalci

x1 celebrates/recognizes/honors x2 (event/abstract) with activity/[party] x3.

salposalpo

x1 is sloped/inclined/slanted/aslant with angle x2 to horizon/frame x3.

sampusampu

x1 is simple/unmixed/uncomplicated in property x2 (ka).

sancesance

x1 is sound produced/emitted by x2.

sangasanga

x1 sings/chants x2 [song/hymn/melody/melodic sounds] to audience x3.

sanjisanji

x1 is conscious/aware of x2 (object/abstract); x1 discerns/recognizes x2 (object/abstract).

sanlisanli

x1 stands [is vertically oriented] on surface x2 supported by limbs/support/pedestal x3.

sanmisanmi

x1 (mass) is a meal composed of dishes including x2.

saskesaske

x1 (mass of facts) is science of/about subject matter x2 based on methodology x3.

savrusavru

x1 is a noise/din/clamor [sensory input without useful information] to x2 via sensory channel x3.

se

2nd conversion; switch 1st/2nd places.

seba'isebahi

basti modal, 2nd place instead of ...

sedu'u

compound abstractor: sentence/equation abstract; x1 is text expressing [bridi] which is x2.

se'a

attitudinal modifier: self-sufficiency - dependency.

se'e

following digits code a character (in ASCII, Unicode, etc.).

se'i

attitudinal modifier: self-oriented - other-oriented.

se'o

evidential: I know by internal experience (dream, vision, or personal revelation).

se'u

elidable terminator: end discursive bridi or mathematical precedence;usually elidable.

sei

start discursive (metalinguistic) bridi.

seja'esejahe

jalge modal, 2nd place (event causal) results because of ...

seja'eku

therefore, resultingly

seka'asekaha

klama modal, 2nd place with destination ...

sela'uselahu

klani modal, 2nd place in quantity ...; measured as ...

selbri

x2=b1 (du'u) is a predicate relationship with relation x1=b2 among arguments x3=b3 (ordered set).

selkla

To destination x1 does x2 go from x3 via route x4 by means x5.

selma'o

x1 is the class of structure word x2, which means or has function x3 in language x4.

selsku

c2 is said by c1 to audience c3 via expressive medium c4.

seltau

x1 is the modifying part of binary metaphor x2 with modified part/modificand x3 giving meaning x4 in usage/instance x5

selti'i

x1 is a suggestion made by x2 to audience x3

selti'ifla

f1=s2 is a bill specifying f2 (state/event) for community f3 under conditions f4, proposed/drafted by s1.

semausemau

zmadu modal, 2nd place (relative!) more than ...; usually a sumti modifier.

seme'asemeha

mleca modal, 2nd place (relative!) less than ...; usually a sumti modifier.

semtosemto

x1 reflects Semitic [metaphor: Middle-Eastern] language/culture/nationality in aspect x2.

semu'ibo

that is the motive for the event ...

senvasenva

x1 dreams about/that x2 (fact/idea/event/state); x2 is a dream/reverie of x1.

sepi'osepiho

pilno modal, 2nd place (instrumental) tool/machine/apparatus/acting entity; using (tool) ...

seri'aseriha

rinka modal, 2nd place (phys./mental) causal therefore ...

sertiserti

x1 are stairs/stairway/steps for climbing structure x2 with steps x3.

sfofasfofa

x1 is a sofa/couch (noun).

si

erase the last Lojban word, treating non-Lojban text as a single word.

siclusiclu

x1 [sound source] whistles/makes whistling sound/note/tone/melody x2.

sidjusidju

x1 helps/assists/aids object/person x2 do/achieve/maintain event/activity x3.

si'a

discursive: similarly.

si'e

convert number to portion selbri; x1 is an (n)th portion of mass/totality x2; (cf. gunma).

si'o

abstractor: idea/concept abstractor; x1 is x2's concept of [bridi].

simlusimlu

x1 seems/appears to have property(ies) x2 to observer x3 under conditions x4.

simsasimsa

x1 is similar/parallel to x2 in property/quantity x3 (ka/ni); x1 looks/appears like x2.

simxusimxu

x1 (set) has members who mutually/reciprocally x2 (event [x1 should be reflexive in 1+ sumti]).

sincesince

x1 is a snake/serpent of species/breed x2.

sinsosinso

x1 is the trigonometric sine of angle/arcsine x2.

sinxasinxa

x1 is a sign/symbol/signal representing/referring/signifying/meaning x2 to observer x3.

sipnasipna

x1 is asleep (adjective); x1 sleeps/is sleeping.

sirjisirji

x1 is straight/direct/line segment/interval between x2 and x3; (adjective:) x1 is linear.

sirxosirxo

x1 reflects Syrian culture/nationality in aspect x2.

sistisisti

x1 [agent] ceases/stops/halts/ends activity/process/state x2 [not necessarily completing it].

skariskari

x1 is/appears to be of color/hue x2 as perceived/seen by x3 under conditions x4.

skicuskicu

x1 tells about/describes x2 (object/event/state) to audience x3 with description x4 (property).

skotoskoto

x1 reflects Gaelic/Scottish culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

slabuslabu

x1 is old/familiar/well-known to observer x2 in feature x3 (ka) by standard x4.

slakaslaka

x1 is a syllable in language x2.

sligusligu

x1 is solid, of composition/material including x2, under conditions x3.

slovoslovo

x1 reflects Slavic language/culture/ethos in aspect x2.

smacusmacu

x1 is a mouse of species/breed x2.

smudukti

d1 and d2=s2 are antonyms of each other.

smunismuni

x1 is a meaning/interpretation of x2 recognized/seen/accepted by x3.

snadasnada

x1 [agent] succeeds in/achieves/completes/accomplishes x2 as a result of effort/attempt/try x3.

softosofto

x1 reflects Russian empire/USSR/ex-USSR (Soviet]/CIS culture/nationality in aspect x2.

so'a

digit/number: almost all (digit/number).

so'e

digit/number: most.

so'i

digit/number: many.

so'imei

quantified selbri: convert many to cardinal; x1 is a set with many members x2 of total set x3.

so'o

digit/number: several.

so'u

digit/number: few.

soi

discursive: reciprocal sumti marker; indicates a reciprocal relationship between sumti.

soljisolji

x1 is a quantity of/contains/is made of gold (Au); [metaphor: valuable, heavy, non-reactive].

solrisolri

x1 is the sun of home planet x2 (default Earth) of race x3; (adjective:) x1 is solar.

solxrula

x1 is a sunflower of species/variety x2.

soncisonci

x1 is a soldier/warrior/fighter of army x2.

sovdasovda

x1 is an egg/ovum/sperm/pollen/gamete of/from organism [mother/father] x2.

spageti

x1 - is spaghetti made out of/containing x2.

spajispaji

x1 (event/action abstract) surprises/startles/is unexpected [and generally sudden] to x2.

spanospano

x1 reflects Spanish-speaking culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

spatispati

x1 is a plant/herb/greenery of species/strain/cultivar x2.

spudaspuda

x1 answers/replies to/responds to person/object/event/situation/stimulus x2 with response x3.

spusku

x1 gives reply/answer/responds with x2 (sedu'u/text/lu'e concept) to x3 via expressive medium x4, about subject x5.

srajisraji

x1 is vertical/upright/erect/plumb/oriented straight up and down in reference frame/gravity x2.

srakusraku

x1 [abrasive/cutting/scratching object/implement] scratches/[carves]/erodes/cuts [into] x2.

sralosralo

x1 reflects Australian culture/nationality/geography/dialect in aspect x2.

sranasrana

x1 pertains to/is germane/relevant to/concerns/is related/associated with/is about x2.

sritosrito

x1 reflects Sanskrit language/Sanskritic/Vedic culture/nationality in aspect x2.

srurisruri

x1 encircles/encloses/is surrounding x2 in direction(s)/dimension(s)/plane x3.

stalistali

x1 remains/stays at/abides/lasts with x2.

stecisteci

x1 (ka) is specific/particular/specialized/[special]/a defining property of x2 among x3 (set).

stedustedu

x1 is a/the head [body-part] of x2; [metaphor: uppermost portion].

stelastela

x1 is a lock/seal of/on/for sealing x2 with/by locking mechanism x3.

sterostero

x1 is x2 steradian(s) [metric unit] in solid angle (default is 1) by standard x3.

stidistidi

x1 (agent) suggests/proposes idea/action x2 to audience x3; x1 (event) inspires x2 in/among x3.

sturastura

x1 is a structure/arrangement/organization of x2 [set/system/complexity].

stuzistuzi

x1 is an inherent/inalienable site/place/position/situation/spot/location of x2 (object/event).

su

erase to start of discourse or text; drop subject or start over.

sudgasudga

x1 is dry of liquid x2; (adjective:) x1 is arid.

sudysrasu

x1 is hay of species x2

su'a

evidential: I generalize - I particularize; discursive: abstractly - concretely.

su'anai

evidential: I generalize - I particularize; discursive: abstractly - concretely.

su'e

digit/number: at most (all); no more than.

su'i

n-ary mathematical operator: plus; addition operator; [(((a + b) + c) + ...)].

su'o

digit/number: at least (some); no less than.

su'oroi

at least once ...

su'u

abstractor: generalized abstractor (how); x1 is [bridi] as a non-specific abstraction of type x2.

suksasuksa

x1 (event/state) is sudden/sharply changes at stage/point x2 in process/property/function x3.

sumtisumti

x1 is a/the argument of predicate/function x2 filling place x3 (kind/number).

sunsicyjudri

j1 is the longitude/right ascension of j2 in system j3

sutrasutra

x1 is fast/swift/quick/hastes/rapid at doing/being/bringing about x2 (event/state).

sy.

letteral for s.

ta

pro-sumti: that there; nearby demonstrative it; indicated thing/place near listener.

tadjitadji

x1 [process] is a method/technique/approach/means for doing x2 (event) under conditions x3.

tagjitagji

x1 is snug/tight on x2 in dimension/direction x3 at locus x4.

ta'e

tense interval modifier: habitually; subjective tense/modal; defaults as time tense.

ta'eku

habitually

ta'itahi

tadji modal, 1st place (in manner 3) methodically; by method ...

ta'o

discursive: by the way - returning to main point.

ta'onai

discursive: by the way - returning to main point.

ta'u

discursive: expanding the tanru - making a tanru.

ta'unai

discursive: making a tanru - expanding the tanru.

taitai

tamsmi modal, 1st place (like)/(in manner 2) resembling ...; sharing ideal form ...

tamdu'i

d1 is/are geometrically similar/has the same shape as d2.

tamsmi

x1 has form x2, similar in form to x3 in property/quality x4.

tanjotanjo

x1 is the trigonometric tangent of angle/arctangent x2.

tanrutanru

x1 is a binary metaphor formed with x2 modifying x3, giving meaning x4 in usage/instance x5.

tarmitarmi

x1 [ideal] is the conceptual shape/form of object/abstraction/manifestation x2 (object/abstract).

tatpitatpi

x1 is tired/fatigued by effort/situation x2 (event); x1 needs/wants rest.

tau

2-word letteral/shift: change case for next letteral only.

tavlatavla

x1 talks/speaks to x2 about subject x3 in language x4.

tcadutcadu

x1 is a town/city of metropolitan area x2, in political unit x3, serving hinterland/region x4.

tcicatcica

x1 (event/experience) misleads/deceives/dupes/fools/cheats/tricks x2 into x3 (event/state).

tcidutcidu

x1 [agent] reads x2 [text] from surface/document/reading material x3; x1 is a reader.

tcikatcika

x1 [hours, minutes, seconds] is the time/hour of state/event x2 on day x3 at location x4.

tcitatcita

x1 is a label/tag of x2 showing information x3.

te

3rd conversion; switch 1st/3rd places.

teci'etecihe

ciste modal, 3rd place of system components ...

te'a

binary mathematical operator: to the power; exponential; [a to the b power].

te'o

digit/number: exponential e (approx 2.71828...).

te'u

elidable terminator: end conversion between non-mex and mex; usually elidable.

tei

composite letteral follows; used for multi-character letterals.

teka'atekaha

klama modal, 3rd place with origin ...

terbi'a

x3=b1 is ill/sick/diseased with symptoms x2=b2 from disease x1=b3.

terditerdi

x1 is the Earth/the home planet of race x2; (adjective:) x1 is terrestrial/earthbound.

tergu'i

x1 is a light source which illuminates x2 with light x3.

terkavbu

x1 is a trap/restraint with x2 being captured/restrained by x3 (object/event).

terpaterpa

x1 fears x2; x1 is afraid/scared/frightened by/fearful of x2 (event/tu'a object).

tertau

x1 is the modified part/modificand of binary metaphor x2 with modifying part x3, giving meaning x4 in usage/instance x5

tertoterto

x1 is a trillion [1012] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

tezu'etezuhe

zukte modal, 3rd place purposefully; (as an action) with goal ...

ti

pro-sumti: this here; immediate demonstrative it; indicated thing/place near speaker.

ti'e

evidential: I hear (hearsay).

ti'o

mathematical expression (mex) operator precedence (discursive).

ti'otci

t1=c2 is a shade/blind for blocking light coming from/through c3

tinju'i

t1=j1 listens to/pays attention to sound t2=j2 with ambient background t3.

tirnatirna

x1 hears x2 against background/noise x3; x2 is audible; (adjective:) x1 is aural.

tirxutirxu

x1 is a tiger/leopard/jaguar/[tigress] of species/breed x2 with coat markings x3.

tisnatisna

x1 (object) fills/becomes stuffed [up]/inflates/blows up with material x2; x2 pours into x1.

to

left parenthesis; start of parenthetical note which must be grammatical Lojban text.

to'a

lower-case letteral shift.

to'e

polar opposite scalar negator.

to'i

open editorial unquote (within a quote); contains grammatical text; mark with editorial insert.

to'isa'a

remarks within {to'isa'a} ... {toi} inside quotations are implicitly by someone else (other than the speaker of the quotation), perhaps an editor

to'o

location tense relation/direction; departing from/directly away from ...

to'u

discursive: in brief - in detail.

toi

elidable terminator: right parenthesis/end unquote; seldom elidable except at end of text.

tolcanci

c1 materializes/suddenly appears at location c2 according to senses/sensor c3.

tolmle

x1 is ugly to x2 in aspect x3 (ka) by aesthetic standard x4.

tolpu'i

p1 picks-up, picks up p2 from surface p3

tolvri

x1 is a coward in activity x2 (event) by standard x3.

tordutordu

x1 is short in dimension/direction x2 (default longest dimension) by measurement standard x3.

trajitraji

x1 is superlative in property x2 (ka), the x3 extreme (ka; default ka zmadu) among set/range x4.

tricutricu

x1 is a tree of species/cultivar x2.

trixetrixe

x1 is posterior/behind/back/in the rear of x2 which faces/in-frame-of-reference x3.

trocitroci

x1 tries/attempts/makes an effort to do/attain x2 (event/state/property) by actions/method x3.

tsalitsali

x1 is strong/powerful/[tough] in property/quality x2 (ka) by standard x3.

tu

pro-sumti: that yonder; distant demonstrative it; indicated thing far from speaker&listener.

tubnutubnu

x1 is a length of tubing/pipe/hollow cylinder [shape/form] of material x2, hollow of material x3.

tugnitugni

x1 [person] agrees with person(s)/position/side x2 that x3 (du'u) is true about matter x4.

tu'a

extracts a concrete sumti from an unspecified abstraction; equivalent to le nu/su'u [sumti] co'e.

tu'e

start of multiple utterance scope; used for logical/non-logical/ordinal joining of sentences.

tu'o

null operand (used in unary mekso operations).

tu'u

elidable terminator: end multiple utterance scope; seldom elidable.

tumlatumla

x1 is a parcel/expanse of land at location x2; x1 is terrain.

tuntatunta

x1 (object, usually pointed) pokes/jabs/stabs/prods x2 (experiencer).

tupletuple

x1 is a/the leg [body-part] of x2; [metaphor: supporting branch].

ty.

letteral for t.

.u

logical connective: sumti afterthought whether-or-not.

.ua

attitudinal: discovery - confusion/searching.

.uanai

attitudinal: discovery - confusion/searching.

.ubu

letteral for u.

.ue

attitudinal: surprise - not really surprised - expectation.

.uesai

attitudinal: "Wow! Wow!"; strong surprise

.u'a

attitudinal: gain - loss.

.u'e

attitudinal: wonder - commonplace.

.u'o

attitudinal: courage - timidity - cowardice.

.u'u

attitudinal: repentance - lack of regret - innocence.

.u'unai

attitudinal: repentance - lack of regret - innocence.

.ui

attitudinal: happiness - unhappiness.

.uinai

attitudinal: happiness - unhappiness.

.uisai

attitudinal: "Yay!"; strong happiness

.uisaidai

attitudinal: empathetic description of someone else's strong happiness

.uo

attitudinal: completion - incompleteness.

.uu

attitudinal: pity - cruelty.

va

location tense distance: near to ... ; there at ...; a medium/small distance from ...

vacrivacri

x1 is a quantity of air/normally-gaseous atmosphere of planet x2, of composition including x3.

va'a

unary mathematical operator: additive inverse; [- a].

va'e

convert number to scalar selbri; x1 is at (n)th position on scale x2.

va'i

discursive: in other words - in the same words.

va'inai

discursive: in other words - in the same words.

va'ovaho

vanbi modal, 1st place (conditions 1) under conditions ...; in environment ...

va'uvahu

xamgu modal, 1st place beneficiary case tag complement benefiting from ...

vajnivajni

x1 (object/event) is important/significant to x2 (person/event) in aspect/for reason x3 (nu/ka).

valsivalsi

x1 is a word meaning/causing x2 in language x3; (adjective: x1 is lexical/verbal).

vancivanci

x1 is an evening [from end-of-work until sleep typical for locale] of day x2 at location x3.

vasruvasru

x1 contains/holds/encloses/includes contents x2 within; x1 is a vessel containing x2.

vau

elidable: end of sumti in simple bridi; in compound bridi, separates common trailing sumti.

ve

4th conversion; switch 1st/4th places.

vecnuvecnu

x1 [seller] sells/vends x2 [goods/service/commodity] to buyer x3 for amount/cost/expense x4.

ve'a

location tense interval: a small/medium region of space.

ve'e

location tense interval: the whole of space.

ve'o

right mathematical bracket.

vei

left mathematical bracket.

veka'avekaha

klama modal, 4th place via route ...

veljvo

x1 is a metaphor [of affix compound] with meaning [of affix compound] x2 with argument [of affix compound] x3 with affix compound x4; x1 is the tanru/metaphor construct of complex word/affix compound/lujvo x4

vemauvemau

zmadu modal, 4th place (relative!) more than/exceeding by amount ...

veme'avemeha

mleca modal, 4th place (relative!) less than by amount ...

vensavensa

x1 is spring/springtime [warming season] of year x2 at location x3; (adjective:) x1 is vernal.

verbaverba

x1 is a child/kid/juvenile [a young person] of age x2, immature by standard x3.

vi

location tense distance: here at ... ; at or a very short/tiny distance from ...

vi'a

dimensionality of space interval tense: 2-space interval; throughout an area.

vi'e

dimensionality of space interval tense: 4-space interval; throughout a spacetime.

vi'i

dimensionality of space interval tense: 1-space interval; along a line.

vi'u

dimensionality of space interval tense: 3-space interval; throughout a space.

vikmivikmi

x1 [body] excretes waste x2 from source x3 via means/route x4.

vinduvindu

x1 is poisonous/venomous/toxic/a toxin to x2.

vinjivinji

x1 is an airplane/aircraft [flying vehicle] for carrying passengers/cargo x2, propelled by x3.

virnuvirnu

x1 is brave/valiant/courageous in activity x2 (event) by standard x3.

viskaviska

x1 sees/views/perceives visually x2 under conditions x3.

vlipavlipa

x1 has the power to bring about x2 under conditions x3; x1 is powerful in aspect x2 under x3.

vo

digit/number: 4 (digit) [four].

voflivofli

x1 flies [in air/atmosphere] using lifting/propulsion means x2.

vo'a

pro-sumti: repeats 1st place of main bridi of this sentence.

vo'e

pro-sumti: repeats 2nd place of main bridi of this sentence.

vo'i

pro-sumti: repeats 3rd place of main bridi of this sentence.

vo'o

pro-sumti: repeats 4th place of main bridi of this sentence.

vo'u

pro-sumti: repeats 5th place of main bridi of this sentence.

voi

non-veridical restrictive clause used to form complicated le-like descriptions using "ke'a".

vormevorme

x1 is a doorway/gateway/access way between x2 and x3 of structure x4.

vrejivreji

x1 is a record of x2 (data/facts/du'u) about x3 (object/event) preserved in medium x4.

vrusivrusi

x1 (ka) is a taste/flavor of/emitted by x2; x2 tastes of/like x1.

vu

location tense distance: far from ... ; yonder at ... ; a long distance from ...

vu'e

attitudinal modifier: virtue - sin.

vu'i

sumti qualifier: the sequence made from set or composed of elements/components; order is vague.

vu'o

joins relative clause/phrase to complete complex or logically connected sumti in afterthought.

vu'u

n-ary mathematical operator: minus; subtraction operator; [(((a - b) - c) - ...)].

vukrovukro

x1 reflects Ukrainian language/culture/nationality in aspect x2.

vy.

letteral for v.

xabjuxabju

x1 dwells/lives/resides/abides at/inhabits/is a resident of location/habitat/nest/home/abode x2.

xagmau

xa1=z1 is better than z2 for xa2 by standard xa3, by amount z4.

xagrai

t1=x1 is the best among set/range t4 for x2 by standard x3.

xajmixajmi

x1 is funny/comical to x2 in property/aspect x3 (nu/ka); x3 is what is funny about x1 to x2.

xamguxamgu

x1 (object/event) is good/beneficial/nice/[acceptable] for x2 by standard x3.

xampoxampo

x1 is x2 ampere(s) [metric unit] in current (default is 1) by standard x3.

xamsixamsi

x1 is a sea/ocean/gulf/[atmosphere] of planet x2, of fluid x3; (adjective:) x1 is marine.

xancexance

x1 is a/the hand [body-part] of x2; [metaphor: manipulating tool, waldo].

xankaxanka

x1 is nervous/anxious about x2 (abstraction) under conditions x3.

xanrixanri

x1 [concept] exists in the imagination of/is imagined by/is imaginary to x2.

xantoxanto

x1 is an elephant of species/breed x2.

xarcixarci

x1 is a weapon/arms for use against x2 by x3.

xatsixatsi

x1 is 10-18 of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

xazdoxazdo

x1 reflects Asiatic culture/nationality/geography in aspect x2.

xe

5th conversion; switch 1st/5th places.

xebroxebro

x1 reflects Hebrew/Jewish/Israeli culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

xectoxecto

x1 is a hundred [100; 102] of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

xeka'axekaha

klama modal, 5th place by transport mode ...

xekrixekri

x1 is black/extremely dark-colored [color adjective].

xelsoxelso

x1 reflects Greek/Hellenic culture/nationality/language in aspect x2.

xexsoxexso

x1 is 1018 of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

xi

subscript; attaches a number of letteral string following as a subscript onto grammar structures.

xindoxindo

x1 reflects Hindi language/culture/religion in aspect x2.

xirnzebra

x1 is a mountain zebra (scientific term: “Equus zebra”).

xispoxispo

x1 reflects Hispano-American culture/nationalities in aspect x2.

xo

digit/number: number/digit/lerfu question.

xokau

number/digit/lerfu indirect question; "how many" in indirect questions like in "I know HOW MANY of them came"

xraboxrabo

x1 reflects Arabic-speaking culture/nationality in aspect x2.

xranixrani

x1 (event) injures/harms/damages victim x2 in property x3 (ka) resulting in injury x4 (state).

xrisoxriso

x1 pertains to the Christian religion/culture/nationality in aspect x2.

xrukixruki

x1 is a turkey [food/bird] of species/breed x2.

xrulaxrula

x1 is a/the flower/blossom/bloom [body-part] of plant/species x2; (adjective:) x1 is floral.

xu

discursive: true-false question.

xunblabi

b1=x1 is pink.

xunrexunre

x1 is red/crimson/ruddy [color adjective].

xurdoxurdo

x1 reflects Urdu language/culture/nationality in aspect x2.

xy.

letteral for x.

.y.

hesitation noise; maintains the floor while speaker decides what to say next.

.ybu

letteral for y.

.y'y.

letteral for '.

za

time tense distance: medium distance in time.

zabnazabna

x1 is favorable/great/superb/fabulous/dandy/outstanding/swell/admirable/nice/commendable/delightful/desirable/enjoyable/laudable/likable/lovable/wonderful/praiseworthy/high-quality/cool in property x2 by standard x3; x1 rocks in aspect x2 according to x3

za'a

evidential: I observe.

za'e

forethought nonce-word indicator; indicates next word is nonce-creation and may be nonstandard.

za'i

abstractor: state (event) abstractor; x1 is continuous state of [bridi] being true.

za'o

interval event contour: continuing too long after natural end of ...; superfective | ---->.

za'u

digit/number: greater than.

za'ure'u

again; in addition to the first time; for the "more"-th time

zai

2-word letteral/shift: alternate alphabet selector follows.

zarcizarci

x1 is a market/store/exchange/shop(s) selling/trading (for) x2, operated by/with participants x3.

zbasuzbasu

x1 makes/assembles/builds/manufactures/creates x2 out of materials/parts/components x3.

zdanizdani

x1 is a nest/house/lair/den/[home] of/for x2.

ze'a

time tense interval: a medium length of time.

ze'e

time tense interval: the whole of time.

ze'i

time tense interval: an instantaneous/tiny/short amount of time.

ze'o

location tense relation/direction; beyond/outward/receding from ...

zei

joins preceding and following words into a lujvo.

zenbazenba

x1 (experiencer) increases/is incremented/augmented in property/quantity x2 by amount x3.

zeptizepti

x1 is 10-21 of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

zerle'a

l1 steals l2 from l3, which is a crime according to z2.

zernerkla

x1 trespasses (illegally enters) into x2, which is a crime according to x3

zetrozetro

x1 is 1021 of x2 in dimension/aspect x3 (default is units).

zganazgana

x1 observes/[notices]/watches/beholds x2 using senses/means x3 under conditions x4.

zi

time tense distance: instantaneous-to-short distance in time.

zifrezifre

x1 is free/at liberty to do/be x2 (event/state) under conditions x3.

zi'e

joins relative clauses which apply to the same sumti.

zi'o

pro-sumti: fills a sumti place, deleting it from selbri place structure;changes selbri semantics.

zmaduzmadu

x1 exceeds/is more than x2 in property/quantity x3 (ka/ni) by amount/excess x4.

zo

quote next word only; quotes a single Lojban word (not a cmavo compound or tanru).

zo'e

pro-sumti: an elliptical/unspecified value; has some value which makes bridi true.

zo'i

location tense relation/direction; nearer than .../inward/approaching from ...

zo'o

attitudinal modifier: humorously - dully - seriously.

zo'u

marks end of logical prenex quantifiers/topic identification and start of sentence bridi.

zoi

delimited non-Lojban quotation; the result treated as a block of text.

zu'a

location tense relation/direction; leftwards/to the left of ...

zu'ezuhe

zukte modal, 1st place (purposed agent) with goal-seeking actor ...

zu'i

pro-sumti: the typical sumti value for this place in this relationship; affects truth value.

zu'o

abstractor: activity (event) abstractor; x1 is abstract activity of [bridi] composed of x2.

zu'u

discursive: on the one hand - on the other hand.

zuktezukte

x1 is a volitional entity employing means/taking action x2 for purpose/goal x3/to end x3.

zuljma

j1=z1 is/are the left foot/feet of j2=z2.

zunlezunle

x1 is to the left/left-hand side of x2 which faces/in-frame-of-reference x3.

zutsezutse

x1 sits [assumes sitting position] on surface x2.

zvafa'i

x1=facki1 finds/locates x2=zvati1=facki3 (object) at x3=zvati2 (event/location)

zvatizvati

x1 (object/event) is at/attending/present at x2 (event/location).

zy.

letteral for z.

Lojban Words Index

Symbols

.a: cmavo, The six types of logical connectives, The six types of logical connectives, sumti connection, sumti connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
.a'a: Propositional attitude indicators
.a'e: Propositional attitude indicators
.a'enai: Propositional attitude indicators
.a'i: Propositional attitude indicators
.a'o: What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
.a'u: Propositional attitude indicators, More about non-logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
.a'ucu'i: Propositional attitude indicators
.abu: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, lerfu words as pro-sumti, References to lerfu, References to lerfu, References to lerfu, References to lerfu, References to lerfu, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, The North Wind and the Sun
.ai: Quotation summary, What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, Vocative scales, Non-decimal and compound bases, The North Wind and the Sun
.ainai: The North Wind and the Sun
.au: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers, Non-decimal and compound bases, The North Wind and the Sun
.ause'i: Attitudinal modifiers
.ause'inai: Attitudinal modifiers
.e: cmavo, sumti connection, Truth questions and connective questions, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "fa'u": Non-logical connectives
contrasted with "pi'u": More about non-logical connectives
.e'a: Propositional attitude indicators, Propositional attitude indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
.e'e: Propositional attitude indicators, Attitudinal modifiers
.e'enaise'a: Attitudinal modifiers
.e'enaise'anai: Attitudinal modifiers
.e'ese'a: Attitudinal modifiers
.e'ese'anai: Attitudinal modifiers
.e'u: Syllabication and stress, Syllabication and stress, Evidentials
compared with "ru'a": Evidentials
.ebu: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
.ei: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, Non-decimal and compound bases, The North Wind and the Sun
.eicai: Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales
.eicu'i: Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales
.einai: Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales
.eiru'e: Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales
.eisai: Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales
.i: The basic structure of longer utterances, The basic structure of longer utterances, The basic structure of longer utterances, The basic structure of longer utterances, The basic structure of longer utterances, Oddball orthographies, cmavo, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Tense relations between sentences, Evidentials, Discursives, The six types of logical connectives, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Logical connection of bridi, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions and connective questions, More about non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, The North Wind and the Sun
.i'a: Pure emotion indicators
.i'anai: Propositional attitude indicators, Propositional attitude indicators
.i'e: Pure emotion indicators, Propositional attitude indicators, Propositional attitude indicators
.i'enai: Propositional attitude indicators, Propositional attitude indicators
.i'inai: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
.ia: cmavo, cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
.ianai: What are attitudinal indicators?, What are attitudinal indicators?, Propositional attitude indicators, Propositional attitude indicators, Discursives, The North Wind and the Sun
.ibabo: The North Wind and the Sun
.ibazabo: The North Wind and the Sun
.ibazibo: The North Wind and the Sun
.ibu: cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
.icabo: The North Wind and the Sun
.ice'o
contrasted with ".ibabo": More about non-logical connectives
.ie: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Propositional attitude indicators, Vocative scales, The North Wind and the Sun
.ienai: Negation of minor grammatical constructs
.iesai: The North Wind and the Sun
.ii: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudes as scales
.iicai: The North Wind and the Sun
.ija: bridi negation and logical connectives
.ija'ebo: The North Wind and the Sun
.ije: bridi negation and logical connectives, A few notes on variables, A few notes on variables, The North Wind and the Sun
.ijebabo: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
.iki'ubo: The North Wind and the Sun
.ini'ibo: The North Wind and the Sun
.io: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Attitudinal modifiers
.iseju: The North Wind and the Sun
.iseki'ubo: The North Wind and the Sun
.isemu'ibo: The North Wind and the Sun
.iu: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?
.iucai: Propositional attitude indicators
.lojban.: brivla
.o: cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
.o'e: The North Wind and the Sun
.o'ocu'i: The North Wind and the Sun
.o'onai: Attitudinal modifiers
.o'u: cmavo, Emotional categories, Emotional categories
.obu: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
.oi: What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Compound indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
.oicai: Propositional attitude indicators
.oinai: Compound indicators
.onai: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
.u: cmavo, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
.u'a: The North Wind and the Sun
.u'e: cmavo, cmavo
.u'o: The North Wind and the Sun
.u'u: Pure emotion indicators, Propositional attitude indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
.u'unai: Attitudinal modifiers
.ua: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, The North Wind and the Sun
.uanai: Miscellaneous indicators
.ubu: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
.ue: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, The North Wind and the Sun
.uesai: The North Wind and the Sun
.ui: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, What are attitudinal indicators?, The universal bu, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
.uinai: Negation of minor grammatical constructs, The North Wind and the Sun
.uiro'obe'unai: Attitudinal modifiers
.uisai: The North Wind and the Sun
.uisaidai: The North Wind and the Sun
.uo: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
.uu: cmavo, What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Pure emotion indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
.y'y.: Vowel pairs, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
.y.: cmavo, Hesitation: Y, Hesitation: Y, List of cmavo interactions
.ybu: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Acronyms, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

B

ba: Tenses, cmavo, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tensed logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Tenses versus modals, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, The North Wind and the Sun
ba'a: Evidentials, Evidentials
ba'acu'i: Evidentials
ba'anai: Evidentials
ba'e: The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, The North Wind and the Sun
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
ba'o: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
as futureward of event: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
derivation of word: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
explanation of derivation: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
badri: The North Wind and the Sun
bai: Modal selbri, Modal selbri, Modal selbri, Sticky modals, Termset logical connection
bai ke: Modal selbri
BAI selma'o
as short forms for "fi'o"-constructs: Modal tags: BAI
causals: Modal sentence connection: the causals
cmavo having irregular forms: CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms
complete table: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
effect of conversion on: Modal tags: BAI
for comparisons: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
forethought and afterthought: Other modal connections
form of cmavo in: Modal tags: BAI
in modal selbri: Modal selbri
introduction: Modal tags: BAI
logical and non-logical connection: Logical and non-logical connection of modals
mix logical and modal connections: Mixed modal connection
negation of: Modal negation
rationale for modal tags: Modal tags: BAI
rationale for selection of BAI cmavo: Modal tags: BAI
with conversion: Modal conversion: JAI
bajra: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, The North Wind and the Sun
bakrecpa'o: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
bakri: rafsi
baku: The North Wind and the Sun
balsoi: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places., Ordering lujvo places., Implicit-abstraction lujvo
balvi: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Tenses versus modals, Tenses versus modals, Tenses versus modals
banfi: The North Wind and the Sun
bangu: Lojban names
banli: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places., The North Wind and the Sun
banzu: The North Wind and the Sun
bapu: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
barda: Simple tanru, The North Wind and the Sun
bartu: The North Wind and the Sun
basti: Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo
basygau: Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo
batci: Dropping the prenex
bau: Modal selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Sticky modals
bavla'i: lujvo with more than two parts., lujvo with more than two parts.
bavlamdei: lujvo with more than two parts., lujvo with more than two parts., lujvo with more than two parts.
baxso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
bazi: The North Wind and the Sun
baziku: The North Wind and the Sun
bazu: The North Wind and the Sun
be: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, The North Wind and the Sun
be'a: Space interval modifiers: FEhE, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
be'o: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri based on sumti: me, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?, The North Wind and the Sun
effect of "ku" on elidability of: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
effect of relative clauses on elidability of: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
elidability of: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
be'u: Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers
be'unai: Attitudinal modifiers
bebna: The North Wind and the Sun
bei: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Why have lujvo?, selbri and tanru negation, Using naku outside a prenex, Questions and answers, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, The North Wind and the Sun
bemro: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
bengo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
bernanjudri: The North Wind and the Sun
bersa: The North Wind and the Sun
berti: The North Wind and the Sun
bi'e: Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
effect on following operator: Simple infix expressions and equations
bi'i: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
bi'o: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
bi'u: Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators
bi'unai: Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
BIhI selma'o
grammar of: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
usage with JOI in forethought connectives: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
bilga: The North Wind and the Sun
bilma: rafsi
bindo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
birka: Relative phrases
bitmu: The North Wind and the Sun
blabi: Relative clauses and descriptors, The North Wind and the Sun
blaci: rafsi, rafsi, The North Wind and the Sun
blakanla: Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau
blanu: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms
blari'o: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti
blaselkanla: Eliding SE rafsi from tertau
blolei: lujvo-making examples, lujvo-making examples, lujvo-making examples
bloti: lujvo-making examples, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
bo: Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tense relations between sentences, Tense relations between sentences, Tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Miscellany, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, The North Wind and the Sun
and forethought connectives : Grouping of afterthought connectives
contrasted with "ke" for tensed logical connection: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
contrasted with "tu'e" for tensed logical connection: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in jeks for operators: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
in joiks for operators: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
in logical connectives: Grouping of afterthought connectives
right-grouping: Grouping of afterthought connectives
BO selma'o
in mekso: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
boi: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, lerfu words as pro-sumti, lerfu words as pro-sumti, lerfu words as pro-sumti, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Special mekso selbri, Special mekso selbri, Subscripts, Subscripts, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Subscripts: XI
effect on elidability of "me'u": Special mekso selbri
eliding from lerfu strings: lerfu words as pro-sumti
exception before MAI: Other uses of mekso
exception before MOI: Special mekso selbri
exception before ROI: Other uses of mekso
required between pro-sumti lerfu string and quantifier: lerfu words as pro-sumti
botpi: The North Wind and the Sun
bradi: The gismu creation algorithm, The North Wind and the Sun
brazo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
bredi: The gismu creation algorithm
bridi: The concept of the bridi, The concept of the bridi, Lojban grammatical terms, Syllabication and stress, The gismu creation algorithm, Property abstractions, Property abstractions
brife: The North Wind and the Sun
brito: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
brivla: Examples of brivla, Lojban grammatical terms, Syllabication and stress, brivla, lujvo, rafsi
broda: gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI
broda-series
for pro-bridi as compared with ko'a-series for pro-sumti: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
pro-bridi: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
pro-bridi and assigning with "cei": Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
pro-bridi use as abstract pattern: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
pro-bridi use as sample gismu: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
pro-bridi with no assignment: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
word-form rationale: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
brode: gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Subscripts: XI
brodi: gismu, The gismu creation algorithm, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI
brodo: gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI
brodu: gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Subscripts: XI
bu: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, The universal bu, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks, Punctuation marks, Punctuation marks, Punctuation marks, Acronyms, Acronyms, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, The North Wind and the Sun
and compound cmavo: The universal bu
effect of multiple: The universal bu
effect on preceding word: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
for extension of lerfu word set: The universal bu
grammar of: The universal bu
interaction with "ba'e": The universal bu
interaction with language shift: Alien alphabets
omitting in acronyms names based on lerfu words: Acronyms
bu'a: lujvo based on pro-sumti, selbri variables, selbri variables, selbri variables, A few notes on variables
bu'a-series
pro-sumti for bound variables: Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series
bu'e: selbri variables, selbri variables, A few notes on variables
bu'i: selbri variables, selbri variables, A few notes on variables
bu'o: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, The North Wind and the Sun
bu'ocu'i: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
bu'onai: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
bu'u: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
compared with "ca": Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
bubu: The universal bu
budjo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
by.: rafsi, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
by.by.: The North Wind and the Sun

C

ca: Tenses, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, Tenses as sumtcita, Tenses as sumtcita, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, The North Wind and the Sun
compared with "bu'u": Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
meaning as a sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
meaning when following interval specification: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
rational for: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
ca'a: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
ca'e: Evidentials, Evidentials
ca'o: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
derivation of word: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
ca'u: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
cabdei: The North Wind and the Sun
cabna: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, The North Wind and the Sun
cadzu: Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
cafne: Lojban sumti raising, The North Wind and the Sun
cagyce'u: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
CAhA selma'o
making sticky: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
order in tense construct: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
cai: Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales
cakcinki: Dependent places, Dependent places, Dependent places
caku: The North Wind and the Sun
calku: Dependent places, Dependent places
canci: The North Wind and the Sun
canko: The North Wind and the Sun
canlu: The North Wind and the Sun
carmi: Attitudes as scales, The North Wind and the Sun
carna: The North Wind and the Sun
cartu: The North Wind and the Sun
carvi: The North Wind and the Sun
casnu: More about non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
catlu: The North Wind and the Sun
ce: cmavo, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
ce'a: Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks
ce'e: Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers
ce'i: Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany
ce'o: Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
".ice'o" contrasted with ".ibabo": More about non-logical connectives
ce'u: Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Property abstractions, The North Wind and the Sun
use in specifying sumti place of property in abstraction: Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u
cedra: The North Wind and the Sun
cei: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
for broda-series assignment; compared with "goi" for ko'a-series assignment: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
for broda-series pro-bridi assignment: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
censa: The North Wind and the Sun
centi: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
cerni: The North Wind and the Sun
certu: The North Wind and the Sun
ci: Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation, The North Wind and the Sun
ci'ajbu: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
ci'e: Metalinguistic negation forms
ci'u: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Notes on gismu place structures, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms
ciblu: The North Wind and the Sun
cidja: fu'ivla
cidjrspageti: fu'ivla
cidni: The North Wind and the Sun
cikna: The North Wind and the Sun
cilce: The North Wind and the Sun
cilre: The North Wind and the Sun
cimoi: The North Wind and the Sun
cinfo: Notes on gismu place structures, Notes on gismu place structures
cinki: Dependent places, Notes on gismu place structures
cinla: The North Wind and the Sun
cipni: The North Wind and the Sun
cipnrstrigi: Some types of symmetrical tanru
cirla: fu'ivla
ciska: The North Wind and the Sun
ciste: Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms
citka: Implicit-abstraction lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
citmau: Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives
citno: Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives
cizra: The North Wind and the Sun
ckaji: The North Wind and the Sun
ckiku: The North Wind and the Sun
ckule: Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Dependent places, The North Wind and the Sun
cladakfu: lujvo with more than two parts.
cladakyxa'i: Some types of asymmetrical tanru, lujvo with more than two parts., lujvo with more than two parts., lujvo with more than two parts.
cladu: The North Wind and the Sun
clani: lujvo with more than two parts., The North Wind and the Sun
clira: The North Wind and the Sun
cliva: Dependent places, Dependent places, The North Wind and the Sun
cmaci: fu'ivla
cmacma: The North Wind and the Sun
cmalu: Simple tanru, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Complex tanru grouping, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, The North Wind and the Sun
cmana: The North Wind and the Sun
cmaro'i: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
cmavo: Variant bridi structure, Lojban grammatical terms, Syllabication and stress, gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
cmene: The North Wind and the Sun
cmevla: Syllabication and stress, cmevla
cmima: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
cnebo: The North Wind and the Sun
cnita: The North Wind and the Sun
co: Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, selbri and tanru negation, The North Wind and the Sun
co'a: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
co'e: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, GOhA and other pro-bridi by series, The North Wind and the Sun
as selbri place-holder: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
rationale for word form: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
co'e-series
pro-bridi: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
co'i: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
co'o: Vocatives and commands, Negation of minor grammatical constructs
co'u: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
coi: Vocatives and commands, cmavo, The syntax of vocative phrases
COI selma'o
effect on referent of "do": Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
effect on referent of "mi": Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
introduction: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
ordering multiple with "mi'e": Vocative scales
vocative scales: Vocative scales
with relative clauses: Relative clauses in vocative phrases
coico'o: Vocative scales
condi: The North Wind and the Sun
cpana: The North Wind and the Sun
cpumi'i: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
crane: The North Wind and the Sun
crepu: The North Wind and the Sun
cribe: The three basic description types
crino: The North Wind and the Sun
ctigau: Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo
ctuca: The North Wind and the Sun
cu: Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Variant bridi structure, Variant bridi structure, Variant bridi structure, Variant bridi structure, Description sumti, Description sumti, Description sumti, Questions, Tenses, Tenses, The three basic description types, Standard bridi form: cu, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Modal selbri, Modal selbri, Introductory, Introductory, The syntax of abstraction, bridi negation, Truth questions, The North Wind and the Sun
as selbri separator: Standard bridi form: cu
effect of selbri-first bridi on: Tagging places: FA
effect of tense specification: Introductory
effect on elidability of "ku": The three basic description types
effect on elidable terminators: Standard bridi form: cu
necessity of: Standard bridi form: cu
need for
quick-tour version: Description sumti
omission of
quick-tour version: Some simple Lojban bridi
use of
quick-tour version: Some simple Lojban bridi
usefulness of: Standard bridi form: cu
cu'e: Tense questions: cu'e, Tense questions: cu'e, Questions and answers
combining with other tense cmavo: Tense questions: cu'e
cu'i: What are attitudinal indicators?, Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales, The space of emotions, The North Wind and the Sun
cu'o: Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary
cu'u: cmavo, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
cukta: The North Wind and the Sun
culno: The North Wind and the Sun
cumki: Attitudes as scales, The North Wind and the Sun
cunso: Miscellany, Miscellany, Table of MOI cmavo, with associated rafsi and place structures
cupra: The North Wind and the Sun
curmi: The North Wind and the Sun
cusku: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, The North Wind and the Sun
cutci: Some words used to indicate selbri relations
cuxna: Non-logical connectives
cy.: cmavo, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

D

da: Pro-sumti summary, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Restricted claims: da poi, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, The problem of “any”, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables, A few notes on variables, A few notes on variables, A few notes on variables, A few notes on variables, A few notes on variables, Subscripts: XI, The North Wind and the Sun
as a translation for "something": Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
contrasted with "zo'e": Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
da prami da
contrasted with "da prami de": Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
da prami de
contrasted with "da prami da": Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
da'a: Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany
da'e: Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
da'i: Discursives, Discursives, The North Wind and the Sun
da'inai: Discursives
da'o: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, List of cmavo interactions
for cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
syntax of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
da'u: Pro-sumti summary
da-series
after third: Subscripts: XI
more than three variables under one scope: Subscripts: XI
pro-sumti for bound variables: Bound variable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the da-series and the bu'a-series
dadgreku: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
dadjo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
dadysli: Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of asymmetrical tanru
dai: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, The North Wind and the Sun
dakfu: lujvo with more than two parts., The North Wind and the Sun
dalmikce: Ordering lujvo places.
dandu: The North Wind and the Sun
danlu: Ordering lujvo places., The North Wind and the Sun
darsi: The North Wind and the Sun
darvistci: The North Wind and the Sun
daski: The North Wind and the Sun
dasni: The North Wind and the Sun
de: Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Universal claims, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, selbri variables, A few notes on variables
de'a: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
de'e: Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
de'i: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
de'u: Pro-sumti summary
decti: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
degji: The North Wind and the Sun
degygutci: The North Wind and the Sun
dei: Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
dejni: Multiple compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi
dekto: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
delno: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
denci: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
denpa: The universal bu, The universal bu, The North Wind and the Sun
dertu: The North Wind and the Sun
derxi: The North Wind and the Sun
di: cmavo, Pro-sumti summary, bridi negation, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, bridi negation and logical connectives, selbri variables, A few notes on variables
di'a: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
di'e: Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, More about non-logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
effect of "tu'e"/"tu'u" on: More about non-logical connectives
di'i: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
di'inai: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
di'u: The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "la'edi'u": Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
contrasted with "ta": Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
di'u-series: Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
dinju: fu'ivla
dirba: The North Wind and the Sun
dirce: The North Wind and the Sun
dizlo: The North Wind and the Sun
djedi: lujvo with more than two parts., lujvo with more than two parts., The North Wind and the Sun
djica: Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, The North Wind and the Sun
djine: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
djuno: Predication/sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions, The North Wind and the Sun
do: Vocatives and commands, Vocatives and commands, Vocatives and commands, Questions, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Tagging places: FA, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Propositional attitude indicators, Vocative scales, Compound bridi, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, The North Wind and the Sun
do'a: Discursives
do'anai: Discursives, The North Wind and the Sun
do'e: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Modal tags: BAI, CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
compared with English "of": Modal tags: BAI
do'i: Pro-sumti summary, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
compared with zo'e-series as indefinite pro-sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
do'o: Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
do'u: The syntax of vocative phrases, Vocative scales
doi: Vocatives and commands, Vocatives and commands, The syntax of vocative phrases, The syntax of vocative phrases, The syntax of vocative phrases, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, KOhA cmavo by series, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
DOI selma'o
with relative clauses: Relative clauses in vocative phrases
donma'o: lujvo based on pro-sumti
donri: The North Wind and the Sun
donta'a: lujvo based on pro-sumti
dotco: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
drani: The North Wind and the Sun
drata: The North Wind and the Sun
drudi: The North Wind and the Sun
du: Other kinds of simple selbri, selbri based on sumti: me, The identity predicate: du, The identity predicate: du, The identity predicate: du, The identity predicate: du, The identity predicate: du, The identity predicate: du, lujvo based on pro-sumti, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, mekso selma'o summary, The North Wind and the Sun
compared with "me" in effect: selbri based on sumti: me
contrasted with "dunli": The identity predicate: du
contrasted with "mintu": The identity predicate: du
derivation of: The identity predicate: du
grammar of: Simple infix expressions and equations
meaning of: The identity predicate: du
rationale for selection of selma'o for: The identity predicate: du
with complex mekso on both sides: Simple infix expressions and equations
du'a: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
du'e: Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
du'i: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
du'u: Predication/sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction, Indirect questions, The North Wind and the Sun
se du'u: Predication/sentence abstraction
dubjavmau: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
dubjavme'a: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
dunda: Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi
dunli: The identity predicate: du, The identity predicate: du, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
contrasted with "du": The identity predicate: du
dy.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet
dzipo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
dzukla: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Termset logical connection

F

fa: Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, The North Wind and the Sun
FA selma'o
after 5th place: Subscripts: XI
as a reminder of place in place structure: Tagging places: FA
avoidance of complex usage of: Tagging places: FA
compared with "zo'e" for omitting places: Tagging places: FA
effect on place structure: Tagging places: FA
effect on place structure order: Tagging places: FA
effect on subsequent non-tagged places: Tagging places: FA
for accessing a selbri place explicitly by relative number: Tagging places: FA
for putting more than one sumti in a single place: Tagging places: FA
in selbri; compared with converted selbri in meaning: Conversion: SE
in selbri; contrasted converted selbri with in structure: Conversion: SE
introduction: Tagging places: FA
syntax of: Tagging places: FA
fa'a: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
special note on direction orientation: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
fa'o: Vocative scales, The universal bu, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions
contrasted with "fe'o": Vocative scales
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
fa'u: Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
compared to termsets: Non-logical connectives
contrasted with ".e": Non-logical connectives
facki: The North Wind and the Sun
fadni: Masses and sets, Masses and sets, Masses and sets, The North Wind and the Sun
fagri: Why have lujvo?, The North Wind and the Sun
fagyfesti: Why have lujvo?, Why have lujvo?
FAhA selma'o
and direction: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
contradictory negation of: Tense negation
negation with NAhE: Tense negation
use in specifying space/time mapping direction: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
fai: Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Modal conversion: JAI, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumtcita: JAI, Conversion of sumtcita: JAI, Abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
as allowing access to original first place in modal conversion: Modal conversion: JAI
effect on numbering of place structure places: Modal conversion: JAI
fanmo: The North Wind and the Sun
fanza: The North Wind and the Sun
farlu: The North Wind and the Sun
fasnu: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, The North Wind and the Sun
fau: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, The North Wind and the Sun
fe: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, The North Wind and the Sun
fe'a: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
fe'e: Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Space interval modifiers: FEhE, Tenses as sumtcita
effect of TAhE/ROI with ZAhO on: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
fe'o: Vocative scales, Vocative scales
contrasted with "fa'o": Vocative scales
fe'u: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
femti: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
ferti: The North Wind and the Sun
festi: Why have lujvo?, Why have lujvo?
fi: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Compound bridi, The North Wind and the Sun
fi'a: Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Modal conversion: JAI, Questions and answers
effect on subsequent untagged sumti: Tagging places: FA
fi'e: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
fi'i: Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales
fi'o: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal selbri, Modal negation, Sticky modals, The North Wind and the Sun
"fi'o"-constructs ; short forms as BAI cmavo: Modal tags: BAI
and modal conversion: Modal conversion: JAI
as modal tag: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
effect on following selbri: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
in tag; relation of modal sumti following to selbri: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
meaning with selbri: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
mixed modal connection with: Mixed modal connection
negation of modals by negating selbri: Modal negation
proscribed for sticky modals: Sticky modals
restriction on use: Other modal connections
usage of modals in relative phrases: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
use in adding places to place structure: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
fi'o modal followed by selbri
effect on eliding "fe'u" in "fi'o"-modal followed by selbri: Modal selbri
fi'u: Signs and numerical punctuation, Miscellany
filso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
finpe: The North Wind and the Sun
finti: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, The North Wind and the Sun
firgai: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
flalu: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
flaume: The North Wind and the Sun
flecu: The North Wind and the Sun
fo: cmavo, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Special mekso selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
fo'a: Pro-sumti summary, lujvo based on pro-sumti, KOhA cmavo by series
fo'e: Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series
fo'i: Pro-sumti summary, KOhA cmavo by series
fo'o: Pro-sumti summary
fo'u: Pro-sumti summary
foi: Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo
foldi: The North Wind and the Sun
fraso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
friko: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
frinu: Miscellany, Miscellany
fu: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA
fu'a: Reverse Polish notation
fu'e: Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions, The North Wind and the Sun
fu'i: Attitudinal modifiers
fu'ivla: Lojban grammatical terms
fu'o: Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, List of cmavo interactions, The North Wind and the Sun
fy.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Miscellany, Miscellany, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

G

ga: Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, The North Wind and the Sun
GA selma'o
conversion and negation: Forethought bridi connection
in mekso: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
in sumti connection: sumti connection
usage in mekso: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
ga'e: Upper and lower cases, Upper and lower cases
ga'i: Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers
ga'icu'i: Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers
ga'inai: Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers
ga'o: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
etymology of: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
ga'u: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
gadri: The five kinds of simple sumti
GAhO selma'o
between tenses: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
grammar of: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
position in forethought intervals: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
usage with JOI: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
usage with JOI in forethought connectives: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
galfi: Implicit-abstraction lujvo
galtu: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
ganai: Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, The North Wind and the Sun
ganlo: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, The North Wind and the Sun
ganse: The North Wind and the Sun
gapru: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, The North Wind and the Sun
gaskre: The North Wind and the Sun
gasnu: Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, The North Wind and the Sun
gau: Modal sentence connection: the causals, The North Wind and the Sun
ge: lujvo-making examples, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, The North Wind and the Sun
ge'a: Infix operators revisited, Infix operators revisited, Vectors and matrices, Reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation
for infix operations with too many operands: Infix operators revisited
ge'e: Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators
ge'i: Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers
ge'o: Alien alphabets
ge'u: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative phrases, Relative phrases
effect of following logical connective on elidability: Relative phrases
elidability of from relative phrases: Relative phrases
gei: Infix operators revisited, Infix operators revisited, Infix operators revisited, Infix operators revisited, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation
as a binary operator: Infix operators revisited
as a ternary operator: Infix operators revisited
rationale for order of places: Infix operators revisited
gekmau: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
gento: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
genxu: The North Wind and the Sun
gerku: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, lujvo-making examples, lujvo-making examples, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Relative clauses and descriptors, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo, Logical connection within tanru
gerzda: lujvo-making examples, lujvo-making examples, lujvo-making examples, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Dependent places, Dependent places, Ordering lujvo places., Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau
gi: Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Other modal connections, Other modal connections, Tense relations between sentences, Tense relations between sentences, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Truth questions and connective questions, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, The North Wind and the Sun
GI selma'o
as opposed to GA: The six types of logical connectives
gi'a: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
gi'e: Ordering lujvo places., The six types of logical connectives, Compound bridi, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
gi'i: Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
gi'o: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
gi'u: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
gidva: The North Wind and the Sun
gigdo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
GIhA selma'o
conversion and negation: Compound bridi
introduction: Compound bridi
usage in tensed connectives: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
usage in tensed connectives with KE: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
girzu: lujvo-making examples, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
gismu: The concept of the bridi, Lojban grammatical terms, gismu, gismu, The gismu creation algorithm
glare: The North Wind and the Sun
gleki: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
glico: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI
go: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
go'a: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
go'a-series
referring to individual sumti of a bridi: Inversion of tanru: co
go'e: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
go'i: Examples of brivla, Questions, Questions, Other kinds of simple selbri, Other kinds of simple selbri, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions and connective questions, Affirmations, The North Wind and the Sun
as affirmative answer to yes/no question: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
compared with "mo" in overriding of arguments: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
contrasted with "mi'u": Discursives
with xu; quick-tour version: Questions
go'i ra'o
contrasted with "go'i": Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
go'i-series
assigning pro-bridi for permanent reference: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
effect of sub-clauses on pro-bridi: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
effect of sumti of referent bridi on pro-bridi: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-bridi as main-bridi anaphora only: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-bridi compared with ri-series pro-sumti in rules of reference: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-bridi in narrative about quotation: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-bridi in quotation series: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-bridi in quotations: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
referent of pro-bridi: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
go'o: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
go'u: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
gocti: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
GOhA selma'o
as component in tanru: Other kinds of simple selbri
as selbri: Other kinds of simple selbri
introduction: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
goi: Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Subscripts: XI, The North Wind and the Sun
assignment of ko'a-series pro-sumti; use in speech contrasted with writing: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
for ko'a-series assignment; compared with "cei" for broda-series assignment: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
rationale for non-inclusion in relative clause chapter: Relative phrases
use in assigning lerfu as pro-sumti: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
use in assigning name: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
GOI selma'o
for comparisons: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
gotro: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
grana: The North Wind and the Sun
grutrxananase: The North Wind and the Sun
gu: cmavo, The six types of logical connectives, Forethought bridi connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
gu'a: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
gu'e: Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Scalar negation of selbri, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
gu'i: Truth questions and connective questions, Questions and answers
gu'o: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
gu'u: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
gugde: The North Wind and the Sun
GUhA selma'o
compared with JA: Logical connection within tanru
conversion and negation: Logical connection within tanru
usage in mekso: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
gundi: The North Wind and the Sun
gunse: The North Wind and the Sun
gusni: The North Wind and the Sun
gy.: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU

I

i
regarding forethought bridi connection: Forethought bridi connection
I selma'o
usage in tensed connectives: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
usage in tensed connectives with TUhE: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
with JA: Logical connection of bridi

J

ja: Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, The North Wind and the Sun
JA selma'o
as a part of Lojban connective system: The six types of logical connectives
as opposed to forethought connectives: Forethought bridi connection
between tenses: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
compared with GUhA: Logical connection within tanru
connecting abstractions: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
conversion and negation: Logical connection within tanru
introduction: The six types of logical connectives
opposed to JOI: Non-logical connectives
places in grammar where used: The six types of logical connectives
usage in mekso: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
usage in tensed connectives: Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection
usage in tensed connectives with TUhE: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
with I: Logical connection of bridi
with negation: Logical connection of bridi
ja'a: Affirmations, Affirmations, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI, Subscripts: XI
ja'e: Modal sentence connection: the causals, The North Wind and the Sun
ja'o: Evidentials, Evidentials, Evidentials, Evidentials, The North Wind and the Sun
jai: Conversion of simple selbri, Modal conversion: JAI, Modal conversion: JAI, Modal conversion: JAI, Conversion of sumtcita: JAI, Lojban sumti raising, Lojban sumti raising, Lojban sumti raising, Lojban sumti raising, Abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, The North Wind and the Sun
for modal conversion: Conversion of simple selbri
meaning withut modal: Modal conversion: JAI
used with tense as equivalent of SE in grammar: Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
jalge: The North Wind and the Sun
jamfu: The North Wind and the Sun
jamna: The North Wind and the Sun
janco: The North Wind and the Sun
jarco: The North Wind and the Sun
javni: The North Wind and the Sun
jbena: Notes on gismu place structures, Notes on gismu place structures
jbini: The North Wind and the Sun
jdari: The North Wind and the Sun
jdaselsku: Ordering lujvo places., Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo
jdice: The North Wind and the Sun
jdika: Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives
jduli: The North Wind and the Sun
je: Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, Mixed modal connection, Logical and non-logical connection of modals, Tense questions: cu'e, Why have lujvo?, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Truth questions and connective questions, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
je'a: Affirmations, Affirmations, The North Wind and the Sun
je'e: Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "vi'o": Vocative scales
je'enai: Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Negation of minor grammatical constructs
je'i: Questions and answers
je'o: Alien alphabets
je'u: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, The North Wind and the Sun
je'unai: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
jegvo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
jei: Truth-value abstraction: jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction, Subscripts: XI, The North Wind and the Sun
place structure: Truth-value abstraction: jei
jelca: Miscellaneous indicators
jenai: Tense questions: cu'e, The North Wind and the Sun
jersi: The North Wind and the Sun
jerxo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
jetce: The North Wind and the Sun
jetnu: The North Wind and the Sun
jgari: The North Wind and the Sun
ji: Questions and answers
ji'a: Discursives, The North Wind and the Sun
ji'asai: The North Wind and the Sun
ji'i: Approximation and inexact numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, The North Wind and the Sun
effect of placement: Approximation and inexact numbers
with elided number: Approximation and inexact numbers
ji'u: Metalinguistic negation forms
jibni: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, The North Wind and the Sun
jinto: The North Wind and the Sun
jinvi: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions, The North Wind and the Sun
jitro: Anomalous lujvo
jo: Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
jo'a: Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms
jo'e: Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives
jo'i: Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso
precedence of: Vectors and matrices
jo'o: Alien alphabets
jo'u: Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "ce": Non-logical connectives
contrasted with "ce'o": Non-logical connectives
contrasted with "joi": Non-logical connectives
result of connection with: Non-logical connectives
joi: Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, The universal bu, The North Wind and the Sun
grammar of "joi" contrasted with eks: Non-logical connectives
grammar of "joi" contrasted with jeks: Non-logical connectives
JOI selma'o
as opposed to JA: The six types of logical connectives
between tenses: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
compared to logical connectives: More about non-logical connectives
conversion and negation: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
conversion and negation in forethought connectives: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
in forethought connectives: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
in mekso: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
usage in mekso: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
usage in tensed connectives: Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection
usage in tensed connectives with TUhE: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
usage with I: More about non-logical connectives
jordo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
ju: Logical connection within tanru, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
ju'a: Evidentials, Evidentials, The North Wind and the Sun
ju'i: The North Wind and the Sun
ju'o: Discursives, The North Wind and the Sun
ju'u: Non-decimal and compound bases, Non-decimal and compound bases, Non-decimal and compound bases
grammar of: Non-decimal and compound bases
jubme: The North Wind and the Sun
jukpa: The North Wind and the Sun
jundi: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
jungo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
junla: The North Wind and the Sun
jy.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

K

ka: cmevla, Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u, Property abstractions, Property abstractions, Property abstractions, Abstract lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
ka'a: Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI
ka'e: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, The North Wind and the Sun
ka'o: Special numbers
as special number compared with as numerical punctuation: Special numbers
ka'u: Evidentials, Evidentials, The North Wind and the Sun
kabri: The North Wind and the Sun
kadno: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
kai: Metalinguistic negation forms
kajna: The North Wind and the Sun
kakne: The North Wind and the Sun
kalri: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, The North Wind and the Sun
kalselvi'i: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
kambla: Abstract lujvo
kanji: What about Chinese characters?
kanla: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, The North Wind and the Sun
kanro: Some words used to indicate selbri relations
kansa: The North Wind and the Sun
karce: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
karcykla: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
kau: Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, The North Wind and the Sun
"ma kau" contrasted with "la djan. kau": Indirect questions
kavbu: The North Wind and the Sun
ke: lujvo-making examples, lujvo-making examples, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "bo" for tensed logical connection: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
for conversion of tanru: Conversion of simple selbri
for expanding scope of scalar negation: Scalar negation of selbri
in sumti grouping where allowed: Grouping of afterthought connectives
ke'a: Pro-sumti summary, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses, The North Wind and the Sun
ambiguity when omitted: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
and abstract descriptions: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
as referent for relativized sumti: What are you pointing at?
contrasted with "ri" in relative clauses: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
effect of omission of: What are you pointing at?
for relativized sumti in relative clauses: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
meaning in relative clause inside relative clause: Relative clauses within relative clauses
non-initial place use in relative clause: What are you pointing at?
subscripting for nested relative clauses: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
with subscript; use for outer sumti reference: Relative clauses within relative clauses
ke'e: Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Complex tanru with ke and ke'e, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it, Conversion: SE, Mixed modal connection, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Why have lujvo?, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Multiple compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Sentences: I
ke'i: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
etymology of: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
ke'o: Vocative scales
compared to "ki'a": Vocative scales
ke'u: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
contrasted with "va'i": Discursives
ke'unai: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
kei: Other kinds of simple selbri, The syntax of abstraction, The syntax of abstraction, The syntax of abstraction, The syntax of abstraction, The syntax of abstraction, The syntax of abstraction, Minor abstraction types, Abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
KEI selma'o
eliding: The syntax of abstraction
kelci: The North Wind and the Sun
kelvo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
kerlo: The North Wind and the Sun
ketco: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
kevna: The North Wind and the Sun
ki: Sticky modals, Sticky modals, Sticky modals, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Story time, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Summary of tense selma'o , Summary of tense selma'o , The North Wind and the Sun
with no tense: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
KI selma'o
introduction: Sticky modals
ki'a: cmavo, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Vocative scales, Metalinguistic negation forms
compared to "ke'o": Vocative scales
ki'o: Signs and numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation
ki'u: Modal sentence connection: the causals, Mixed modal connection, The North Wind and the Sun
kilto: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, The North Wind and the Sun
kisto: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
klama: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, tanru, Conversion of simple selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Introductory, Introductory, Introductory, Standard bridi form: cu, Standard bridi form: cu, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Conversion: SE, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI, Event abstraction, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, Dependent places, Dependent places, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Termset logical connection, Termset logical connection, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, The problem of “any”, Subscripts: XI, Subscripts: XI, The North Wind and the Sun
place structure of: Introductory
place structure of "se klama": Conversion: SE
klesi: lujvo-making examples
ko: Vocatives and commands, Vocatives and commands, Vocatives and commands, Questions, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Truth questions and connective questions, The North Wind and the Sun
in later selbri place in imperative: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
in sub-clause of main bridi: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
use for commands: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
use for imperatives: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
ko'a: Pro-sumti summary, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, The identity predicate: du, The identity predicate: du, The identity predicate: du, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti
ko'a-series: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
after tenth: Subscripts: XI
for pro-sumti as compared with broda-series for pro-bridi: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
more than three variables under one scope: Subscripts: XI
pro-sumti contrasted with lerfu as pro-sumti in explicit assignment of: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
ko'e: Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses within relative clauses, lerfu words as pro-sumti
ko'i: Pro-sumti summary
ko'o: Pro-sumti summary
ko'u: Pro-sumti summary
kojna: The North Wind and the Sun
korbi: The North Wind and the Sun
korcu: The North Wind and the Sun
kosta: The North Wind and the Sun
krasi: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
krecau: selbri and tanru negation
krefu: The North Wind and the Sun
krici: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
krinu: Modal sentence connection: the causals
krixa: The North Wind and the Sun
krorinsa: The North Wind and the Sun
kruji: The North Wind and the Sun
ku: Description sumti, Description sumti, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, selbri based on sumti: me, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, Indefinite descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Possessive sumti, Modal selbri, Modal selbri, Modal selbri, Introductory, Introductory, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumtcita, Tenses as sumtcita, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
as elidable terminator for descriptions: The three basic description types
effect of following selbri on elidability of: The three basic description types
effect of possessive sumti on elidability of: Possessive sumti
effect on elidability of "be'o": Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
effect on of omitting descriptor: Indefinite descriptions
quick-tour version: Description sumti
uses of: The three basic description types
with tense: Introductory
KU selma'o
quick-tour version: Description sumti
ku'a: Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives
ku'e: Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
ku'i: Discursives, Truth questions and connective questions, The North Wind and the Sun
ku'o: What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Possessive sumti, Restricted claims: da poi
effect of "vau" on elidability: Possessive sumti
elidability for relative clauses: What are you pointing at?
kuarka: fu'ivla
kucli: The North Wind and the Sun
kuldi'u: Dependent places
kumfa: The North Wind and the Sun
kunti: The North Wind and the Sun
kurji: Some words used to indicate selbri relations
ky.: Syllabication and stress, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

L

la: Words that can act as sumti, selbri based on sumti: me, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Lojban names, Lojban names, Lojban names, Relative clauses and descriptors, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Acronyms, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, The North Wind and the Sun
compared with "le" in specificity: The three basic description types
contrasted with "lai" in implications: Individuals and masses
contrasted with "le" in implications: The three basic description types
contrasted with "lo" in implications: The three basic description types
contrasted with vocatives: Vocative scales
implications of: The three basic description types
use with descriptions contrasted with use before Lojbanized names: The three basic description types
LA selma'o
contrasted with LE in use of name-words: Lojban names
introduction: Conversion: SE
la'a: The North Wind and the Sun
la'asai: The North Wind and the Sun
la'e: sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, References to lerfu, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, The North Wind and the Sun
as short for le selsinxa be : sumti qualifiers
effect of on meaning: sumti qualifiers
la'e lu
compared with "me'o": References to lerfu
la'edi'e: The North Wind and the Sun
la'edi'u: The sumti di'u and la'e di'u, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "di'u": Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
la'i: Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names
as set counterpart of "lai": Masses and sets
la'o: fu'ivla, cmevla, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
la'u: Explicit magnitudes, Metalinguistic negation forms
la-series
descriptors compared with le-series in implicit quantification: Quantified descriptions
ladru: Some types of asymmetrical tanru, The North Wind and the Sun
LAhE selma'o: sumti qualifiers
effect of relative clause placement with: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
lai: Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Lojban names
as mass counterpart of "lai": Individuals and masses
contrasted with "la" in implications: Individuals and masses
lanme: Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo
lantro: Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo
lanzu: The North Wind and the Sun
latmo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
lau: Punctuation marks, Punctuation marks, Punctuation marks, Punctuation marks, Punctuation marks
effect on following lerfu word: Punctuation marks
LAU selma'o
grammar of following BY cmavo: List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo
le: Description sumti, Possession, cmavo, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, The five kinds of simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, The syntax of vocative phrases, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Event abstraction, Vocative scales, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, What's wrong with this picture?, Grouping of quantifiers, Simple infix expressions and equations, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, The North Wind and the Sun
and specificity: The three basic description types
and truth of selbri: The three basic description types
compared with "la" in specificity: The three basic description types
compared with English "the": The three basic description types
contrasted with "lo" in implications: The three basic description types
contrasted with "lo" in implicit quantification: Quantified descriptions
contrasted with "lo" in specificity: The three basic description types
contrasted with "lo" in truth requirement: The three basic description types
implications of: The three basic description types
implicit outer quantifier for: Quantified descriptions
in false-to-fact descriptions: The three basic description types
meaning of in the plural: Individuals and masses
le nu
definition: Event abstraction
LE selma'o
contrasted with LA in use of name-words: Lojban names
introduction: Conversion: SE
usage with selbri with JAI: Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
le'a: Expressing scales in selbri negation, Metalinguistic negation forms
le'e: Descriptors for typical objects, Descriptors for typical objects, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, The North Wind and the Sun
relationship to "le'i": Descriptors for typical objects
le'i: Masses and sets, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, The North Wind and the Sun
as set counterpart of "lei": Masses and sets
relationship to "le'e": Descriptors for typical objects
le'o: Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers
le'u: Quotation summary, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions
le-series
as encompassing le-series and la-series descriptors for quantification discussion: Quantified descriptions
definition: Quantified descriptions
descriptors compared with la-series in implicit quantification: Quantified descriptions
rationale for implicit inner quantifier: Quantified descriptions
rule for implicit inner quantifier: Quantified descriptions
lebna: Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi
ledu'u: The North Wind and the Sun
lego'i: The North Wind and the Sun
lei: Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "loi" in specificity: Individuals and masses
leka: The North Wind and the Sun
lenei: The North Wind and the Sun
lenku: The North Wind and the Sun
lenu: The North Wind and the Sun
lerci: The North Wind and the Sun
lerfu: fu'ivla, What's a letteral, anyway?, What's a letteral, anyway?, The North Wind and the Sun
lervla: What's a letteral, anyway?
lesi'o: The North Wind and the Sun
li: The five kinds of simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti, Number summary, Number summary, Number summary, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Special mekso selbri, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary, The North Wind and the Sun
as converter of mekso into sumti: Simple infix expressions and equations
contrasted with "me'o": Other uses of mekso
relation to "me'o" compared with "la"/"zo" relation: Other uses of mekso
terminator for: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
LI selma'o: Number summary
li'i: Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types
li'o: Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators
li'u: The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO, The North Wind and the Sun
libjo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
lifri: The North Wind and the Sun
lijda: Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo
lijgri: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
lindi: The North Wind and the Sun
linji: The North Wind and the Sun
linsi: The North Wind and the Sun
lisri: The North Wind and the Sun
liste: Non-logical connectives
litki: Implicit-abstraction lujvo
litru: Dependent places, Dependent places, The North Wind and the Sun
lo: The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite descriptions, Indefinite descriptions, Indefinite descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, Metalinguistic negation forms, Grouping of quantifiers, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, The North Wind and the Sun
and truth of selbri: The three basic description types
contrasted with "le" in implications: The three basic description types
contrasted with "le" in implicit quantification: Quantified descriptions
contrasted with "le" in specificity: The three basic description types
contrasted with "le" in truth requirement: The three basic description types
contrasted with "loi" and "lo'i": Masses and sets
implications of: The three basic description types
implicit outer quantifier for: Quantified descriptions
omission of: Indefinite descriptions
lo'a: Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets
contrasted with "na'a": Alien alphabets
lo'e: Descriptors for typical objects, Descriptors for typical objects, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, The North Wind and the Sun
relationship to "lo'i": Descriptors for typical objects
lo'i: Masses and sets, Masses and sets, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Special mekso selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
as set counterpart of "loi": Masses and sets
contrasted with "lo" and "loi": Masses and sets
relationship to "lo'e": Descriptors for typical objects
with elided quantifiers: Special mekso selbri
lo'o: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
effect of logical connective on elidability of: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
lo'u: The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
lo-series
caution on exact numbers as inner quantifiers: Quantified descriptions
rationale for implicit inner quantifier: Quantified descriptions
rule for implicit inner quantifier: Quantified descriptions
logji: Lojban names
loi: Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Individuals and masses, Masses and sets, Masses and sets, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, The North Wind and the Sun
as mass counterpart of "lo": Individuals and masses
contrasted with "lei" in specificity: Individuals and masses
contrasted with "lo" and "lo'i": Masses and sets
lojbangirz: lujvo-making examples
lojbaugri: lujvo-making examples
lojbo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
loldi: The North Wind and the Sun
lonu: The North Wind and the Sun
lu: The five kinds of simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quotation summary, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, No more to say: FAhO, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "me'o" for representing lerfu: References to lerfu
lu'a: Quantified descriptions, sumti qualifiers, The North Wind and the Sun
effect of on meaning: sumti qualifiers
lu'e: sumti qualifiers, Predication/sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction, Miscellany, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI
as short for "le sinxa be": sumti qualifiers
effect of on meaning: sumti qualifiers
lu'i: sumti qualifiers, The North Wind and the Sun
effect of on meaning: sumti qualifiers
lu'o: sumti qualifiers
effect of on meaning: sumti qualifiers
lu'u: sumti qualifiers, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Lojban sumti raising
as elidable terminator for qualified sumti: sumti qualifiers
lubno: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
lubu: The North Wind and the Sun
lujvo: Lojban grammatical terms, lujvo, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
ly.: Some simple Lojban bridi, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

M

ma: Questions, Questions, Questions, Questions, Questions, Questions, Pro-sumti summary, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Tense questions: cu'e, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Questions and answers, Questions and answers, Questions and answers, Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
as sumti question: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
for tense questions: Tense questions: cu'e
ma'a: Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
ma'i: Movement in space: MOhI, Special mekso selbri
ma'o: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Vectors and matrices, Explicit operator precedence, Miscellany, Miscellany
potential ambiguity caveat: Miscellany
ma'u: Signs and numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation, Simple infix expressions and equations, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers
with elided number: Indefinite numbers
mabla: Attitudinal modifiers
mai: Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI, Utterance ordinals: MAI, Utterance ordinals: MAI, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "mo'o": Other uses of mekso
MAI selma'o
exception on use of "boi" before: Other uses of mekso
makau: The North Wind and the Sun
mamta: rafsi, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, The North Wind and the Sun
manci: The North Wind and the Sun
manku: The North Wind and the Sun
mapti: The North Wind and the Sun
marji: The North Wind and the Sun
masno: The North Wind and the Sun
matne: Individuals and masses, The North Wind and the Sun
mau: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
avoiding in favor of "seme'a": Modal relative phrases; Comparison
me: selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, Acronyms, Special mekso selbri, Special mekso selbri, Special mekso selbri, Special mekso selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
compared with "du" in effect: selbri based on sumti: me
effect of MOI on: Special mekso selbri
explicitly specifying: Vocative scales
place structure of: selbri based on sumti: me
used with names: selbri based on sumti: me
me'a: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
avoiding in favor of "semau": Modal relative phrases; Comparison
me'e: The North Wind and the Sun
me'i: Approximation and inexact numbers
with elided number: Approximation and inexact numbers
me'o: Number summary, Number summary, Number summary, The universal bu, References to lerfu, References to lerfu, References to lerfu, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, mekso selma'o summary
as a prefix for logograms: The universal bu
compared with "la'e lu": References to lerfu
contrasted with "li": Other uses of mekso
contrasted with "lu…li'u" for representing lerfu: References to lerfu
contrasted with quotation for representing lerfu: References to lerfu
relation to "li" compared with "l"a/"zo" relation: Other uses of mekso
me'u: selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, selbri based on sumti: me, Special mekso selbri, Special mekso selbri
elidability: selbri based on sumti: me
relative precedence with logical connectives: selbri based on sumti: me
megdo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
mei: Non-logical connectives, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary, The North Wind and the Sun
mekso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
melbi: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Complex tanru grouping, Complex tanru grouping, The North Wind and the Sun
meljo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
menli: The North Wind and the Sun
mensi: The North Wind and the Sun
merko: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Acronyms
mexno: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
mi: Description sumti, Questions, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, The five kinds of simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti, The five kinds of simple sumti, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Incidental relative clauses, Possessive sumti, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Tagging places: FA, Conversion: SE, Conversion: SE, Modal conversion: JAI, Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers, Vocative scales, Multiple compound bridi, Termset logical connection, selbri and tanru negation, Special mekso selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
mi'a: Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, The North Wind and the Sun
mi'e: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, Vocative scales
contrasted with other members of COI: Vocative scales
effect of ordering multiple COI: Vocative scales
mi'enai: Vocative scales
mi'i: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
mi'o: cmavo, Quantified sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series, The North Wind and the Sun
mi'u: Discursives
contrasted with "go'i": Discursives
mi-series
pro-sumti: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
pro-sumti and lack of pro-bridi equivalent: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
midju: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, The North Wind and the Sun
mikce: Ordering lujvo places.
mikri: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
milti: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
milxe: The North Wind and the Sun
minde: Anomalous lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
minli: The North Wind and the Sun
mintu: The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "du": The identity predicate: du
misro: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
mixre: The North Wind and the Sun
mlana: The North Wind and the Sun
mlatu: Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, The North Wind and the Sun
mleca: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
mo: Questions, Questions, Questions, Questions, Questions, Questions, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, selbri and tanru negation, Other uses of mekso, Questions and answers, Questions and answers
as selbri question: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
compared with "go'i" in overriding of arguments: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
mo'a: Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri
mo'e: Amount abstractions, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem
terminator for: Using Lojban resources within mekso
mo'i: Movement in space: MOhI, Movement in space: MOhI, Movement in space: MOhI, Movement in space: MOhI, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
mo'o: Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Utterance ordinals: MAI, Utterance ordinals: MAI, Utterance ordinals: MAI, Utterance ordinals: MAI, Utterance ordinals: MAI, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "mai": Other uses of mekso
mo'u: Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
moi: Special mekso selbri, Special mekso selbri, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, mekso selma'o summary
MOI selma'o
in mathematical expressions: Other kinds of simple selbri
use of "boi" before: Special mekso selbri
mojysu'a: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
mokca: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
molro: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
morji: The North Wind and the Sun
morko: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
morsi: The North Wind and the Sun
mrostu: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
mu: Quantified sumti, Relative clauses and descriptors, Number questions, Reverse Polish notation, The North Wind and the Sun
mu'a: The North Wind and the Sun
mu'anai: The North Wind and the Sun
mu'e: Types of event abstractions, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
place structure: Types of event abstractions
mu'i: Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals, The North Wind and the Sun
mu'onai: Vocative scales
mukti: Modal sentence connection: the causals, Tenses versus modals, Tenses versus modals, Tenses versus modals
mulgri: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
mulno: The North Wind and the Sun
murta: The North Wind and the Sun
muslo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
mutce: The North Wind and the Sun
muvdu: The North Wind and the Sun
my.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, The North Wind and the Sun

N

na: Questions, Tenses and bridi negation, Tenses and bridi negation, Tenses and bridi negation, Tenses and bridi negation, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Logical connection of bridi, Logical connection of bridi, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, sumti connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Multiple compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, bridi negation, bridi negation, bridi negation, bridi negation, bridi negation, bridi negation, bridi negation, bridi negation, bridi negation, bridi negation, selbri and tanru negation, Truth questions, Truth questions, Affirmations, Affirmations, Affirmations, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms, Negation boundaries, Negation boundaries, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Questions and answers, Subscripts: XI, The North Wind and the Sun
and negation boundary: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
multiple "na" and tense: Tenses and bridi negation
order in logical connectives with "se": Logical connection of bridi
writing convention in eks: sumti connection
na'a: Alien alphabets
contrasted with "lo'a": Alien alphabets
na'e: Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, Modal negation, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, selbri and tanru negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Truth questions, Affirmations, Metalinguistic negation forms, The North Wind and the Sun
before "gu'e": Scalar negation of selbri
contrasted with "na'e ke": Scalar negation of selbri
na'i: Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms, Metalinguistic negation forms
na'o: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
na'u: Using Lojban resources within mekso, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Explicit operator precedence
terminator for: Using Lojban resources within mekso
use in asking operator questions: Other uses of mekso
na'ujbi: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
NAhE selma'o: sumti qualifiers
effect of relative clause placement with: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
for negating PU: Tense negation
in mekso: Miscellany
NAhE+BO construct
explanation of sumti negation: sumti negation
introduction: sumti qualifiers
nai: Pure emotion indicators, Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales, Emotional categories, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Compound indicators, Vocative scales, Vocative scales, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Forethought bridi connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, More about non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, Negation of minor grammatical constructs, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, bridi negation and logical connectives, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Questions and answers, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, The North Wind and the Sun
effect on joiks: More about non-logical connectives
placement in afterthought bridi connection contrasted with forethought: Forethought bridi connection
placement in forethought bridi connection contrasted with afterthought: Forethought bridi connection
naja: Logical connection within tanru, “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it
najnimre: The North Wind and the Sun
naku: The North Wind and the Sun
as creating a negation boundary: Using naku outside a prenex
compared with sumti in grammar: Using naku outside a prenex
effect on conversion with "se" on negation boundary: Using naku outside a prenex
effect on moving quantifiers: Using naku outside a prenex
in linked sumti places: Using naku outside a prenex
multiple in sentence: Using naku outside a prenex
negation; rationale for considering an advanced technique: Using naku outside a prenex
outside of prenex: Using naku outside a prenex
naku su'oda
as expansion of "noda": Negation boundaries
naku zo'u
and negation boundary: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
nakykemcinctu: lujvo-making examples, lujvo-making examples
namcu: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
nanba: The North Wind and the Sun
nanla: The North Wind and the Sun
nanmu: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Modal tags: BAI, selbri variables
nanvi: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
nau: Tenses in subordinate bridi, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Tenses in subordinate bridi
effect on sticky tenses: Tenses in subordinate bridi
syntax: Tenses in subordinate bridi
ne: Relative phrases, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, The North Wind and the Sun
compared with "pe": Relative phrases
ne'a: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
ne'i: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
ne'u: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
nei: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
ni: Amount abstractions, Amount abstractions, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Truth-value abstraction: jei, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Using Lojban resources within mekso, A catalogue of selma'o
ni'a: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
ni'e: Using Lojban resources within mekso, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Explicit operator precedence
terminator for: Using Lojban resources within mekso
ni'i: Modal sentence connection: the causals
ni'o: The basic structure of longer utterances, The basic structure of longer utterances, The basic structure of longer utterances, The basic structure of longer utterances, Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, The North Wind and the Sun
effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
ni'u: Signs and numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers
with elided number: Indefinite numbers
nibli: Modal sentence connection: the causals
nicte: The North Wind and the Sun
nimre: Simple tanru
ninmu: The North Wind and the Sun
nitcu: The problem of “any”
nixli: Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, The North Wind and the Sun
no: Syllabication and stress, IPA for English speakers, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Truth questions and connective questions, Negation boundaries, Negation boundaries, Negation boundaries, Lojban numbers, Indefinite numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases, The North Wind and the Sun
expanding quantifier: Negation boundaries
no'a: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
no'e: Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation
no'i: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Paragraphs: NIhO, Subscripts: XI, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO
effect on pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignments: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
no'o: Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers
no'u: Relative phrases, Relative phrases
compared with "po'u": Relative phrases
contrasted with po'u: Relative phrases
nobli: cmevla
noda: Negation boundaries
expanding to "naku su'oda": Negation boundaries
noi: What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Incidental relative clauses, Relative phrases, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, The North Wind and the Sun
nolraitru: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
noroi: The North Wind and the Sun
nu: The syntax of abstraction, Event abstraction, Event abstraction, Event abstraction, Event abstraction, Types of event abstractions, Types of event abstractions, Property abstractions, Why have lujvo?, Abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Abstract lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Subscripts: XI, The North Wind and the Sun
definition: Event abstraction
place structure: Event abstraction
NU selma'o
event-type abstractors: Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
introduction: Other kinds of simple selbri
with connectives: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
nu'a: Other kinds of simple selbri, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso, Other uses of mekso
use in answering operator questions: Other uses of mekso
nu'e: Vocative scales
nu'i: Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Termset logical connection, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers
nu'o: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, The North Wind and the Sun
nu'u: Other modal connections, Explicit magnitudes, Termset logical connection, Termset logical connection, Grouping of quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers
nuncti: Some types of symmetrical tanru, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo
nunctu: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
nunkla: Abstract lujvo, Subscripts: XI, Subscripts: XI
nupre: The North Wind and the Sun
nuzlo: The North Wind and the Sun
ny.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

P

pa: cmevla, Quantified sumti, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Signs and numerical punctuation, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Special mekso selbri, Special mekso selbri, Vectors and matrices, The North Wind and the Sun
PA selma'o
exception on use of "boi" with MOI: Special mekso selbri
members with rafsi: Miscellany
pa'e: Discursives
pa'enai: Discursives
pa'o: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
pacna: The North Wind and the Sun
pacru'i: Some types of symmetrical tanru
pagbu: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
pagre: The North Wind and the Sun
pai: Special numbers
palta: The North Wind and the Sun
pamai: The North Wind and the Sun
pamoi: Scalar negation of selbri, Special mekso selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
panci: The North Wind and the Sun
pare'uku: The North Wind and the Sun
paso: Non-decimal and compound bases
patyta'a: rafsi
pau: Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
placement in sentence: Miscellaneous indicators
paunai: Miscellaneous indicators
pe: Relative phrases, Relative phrases, Possessive sumti, Possessive sumti, Possessive sumti, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, The North Wind and the Sun
as loose association: Relative phrases
compared with "ne": Relative phrases
compared with poi ke'a srana : Relative phrases
contrasted with "po": Relative phrases
pe'a: Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, The North Wind and the Sun
pe'e: Termset logical connection, Termset logical connection, Logical connection within tanru
pe'i: Indicators, Evidentials, Evidentials, The North Wind and the Sun
pe'o: Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)
pe'u
contrasted with ".e'o": Vocative scales
pei: cmavo, Attitudes as scales, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours, Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
pelji: The North Wind and the Sun
pelnimre: Simple tanru
pelxu: Simple tanru
pendo: The North Wind and the Sun
penmi: The North Wind and the Sun
pensi: The North Wind and the Sun
petso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
pezli: The North Wind and the Sun
pi: Quantified descriptions, Signs and numerical punctuation, Signs and numerical punctuation, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Non-decimal and compound bases, Non-decimal and compound bases, Miscellany
pi'a: Vectors and matrices, Vectors and matrices, Vectors and matrices
pi'e: Non-decimal and compound bases, Non-decimal and compound bases, Non-decimal and compound bases, Non-decimal and compound bases, Non-decimal and compound bases, Non-decimal and compound bases
pi'i: Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation, The North Wind and the Sun
pi'o: Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI
pi'u: Sub-events, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives
contrasted with ".e": More about non-logical connectives
use in connecting tenses: Sub-events
picti: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
pilno: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI, Anomalous lujvo, Anomalous lujvo
pimlu: The North Wind and the Sun
pinta: The North Wind and the Sun
pinxe: The North Wind and the Sun
piro: Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers
piso'a: Indefinite numbers
piso'u: Indefinite numbers
pisu'o: Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Approximation and inexact numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers
pixra: The North Wind and the Sun
platu: The North Wind and the Sun
plipe: The North Wind and the Sun
pluka: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, The North Wind and the Sun
pluta: Conversion: SE, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "ve klama": Conversion: SE
po: Relative phrases, Relative phrases, Relative phrases
as restrictive possession: Relative phrases
compared with poi ke'a se steci srana : Relative phrases
contrasted with "pe": Relative phrases
contrasted with "po'e": Relative phrases
contrasted with English possession : Relative phrases
po'e: Relative phrases, Relative phrases
as intrinsic possession: Relative phrases
compared with poi ke'a jinzi ke se steci srana : Relative phrases
contrasted with "po": Relative phrases
po'o: Discursives, Discursives, The North Wind and the Sun
placement in sentence: Discursives
po'u: Relative phrases, Relative phrases, Relative phrases, Relative phrases, Relative phrases
as identity: Relative phrases
compared with "no'u": Relative phrases
compared with poi ke'a du : Relative phrases
contrasted with no'u: Relative phrases
relative phrase of contrasted with relativized sumti of: Relative phrases
poi: What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, Incidental relative clauses, Incidental relative clauses, Incidental relative clauses, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Relative clauses and descriptors, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Metalinguistic negation forms, Restricted claims: da poi, Restricted claims: da poi, Dropping the prenex, Dropping the prenex, The North Wind and the Sun
discussion of translation: What are you pointing at?
dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables: Dropping the prenex
syntax of: What are you pointing at?
polje: The North Wind and the Sun
polno: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
ponjo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
ponse: Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
porsi: The North Wind and the Sun
porto: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
prali: The North Wind and the Sun
prenu: Simple tanru, Simple tanru, Individuals and masses, Simple infix expressions and equations, The North Wind and the Sun
preti: The North Wind and the Sun
prije: The North Wind and the Sun
prina: The North Wind and the Sun
pritu: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
pu: Tenses, Tenses and bridi negation, Introductory, Introductory, Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, Vague intervals and non-specific tenses, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumtcita, Tenses as sumtcita, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Sticky and multiple tenses: KI, Tenses in subordinate bridi, Termset logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, The North Wind and the Sun
meaning as a sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
meaning when following interval specification: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
pu ge: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
PU selma'o
compared with FAhA: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
contradictory negation of: Tense negation
for forethought tense connection of sentences: Tense relations between sentences
negation with NAhE: Tense negation
PU tenses contrasted with ZAhO tenses in viewpoint: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
with "ze'e": Interval properties: TAhE and roi
pu'i: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA, The North Wind and the Sun
pu'o: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
as pastward of event: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
derivation of word: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
explanation of derivation: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
pu'u: Types of event abstractions, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
place structure: Types of event abstractions
puba: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
pulji: The North Wind and the Sun
punji: The North Wind and the Sun
purci: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
purdi: The North Wind and the Sun
py.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

R

ra: sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
ra'a: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
ra'e: Signs and numerical punctuation
ra'i: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
ra'o: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
ra'u: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
scale of importance: Discursives
ra'ucu'i: Discursives
ra'unai: Discursives
ractu: The North Wind and the Sun
radno: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
rafsi: Lojban grammatical terms, gismu, lujvo
rai: The North Wind and the Sun
rakso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
raktu: The North Wind and the Sun
ralju: cmevla
ranji: The North Wind and the Sun
rarna: The North Wind and the Sun
ratcu: The North Wind and the Sun
rau: Attitudinal modifiers, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Special mekso selbri
re: cmavo, cmavo, cmavo, Quantified sumti, Quantified sumti, Quantified sumti, Quantified sumti, sumti-based descriptions, Relative clauses and descriptors, Other modal connections, Non-logical connectives, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Approximation and inexact numbers, Reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation, The North Wind and the Sun
re'i: Vocative scales
re'inai: Vocative scales
re'o: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
re'u: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
remai: The North Wind and the Sun
remei: The North Wind and the Sun
remna: The North Wind and the Sun
rere'u: The North Wind and the Sun
reroi: Sub-events
retsku: The North Wind and the Sun
ri: sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers, Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, The North Wind and the Sun
contrasted with "ke'a" in relative clauses: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
ri'a: Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation, The North Wind and the Sun
ri'e: Attitudinal modifiers, Attitudinal modifiers
ri'enai: Attitudinal modifiers
ri'u: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
ri-series
pro-sumti: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-sumti in narrative about quotation: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-sumti in quotation series: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-sumti in quotations: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
ricfu: Compound bridi
rigni: The North Wind and the Sun
rinka: Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Other modal connections, Lojban sumti raising, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Implicit-abstraction lujvo, Notes on gismu place structures, Notes on gismu place structures, Forethought bridi connection, The North Wind and the Sun
rirxe: The North Wind and the Sun
risna: Miscellaneous indicators
ro: Quantified sumti, Quantified sumti, Quantified sumti, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Relative clauses and descriptors, Universal claims, Universal claims, Universal claims, Dropping the prenex, Dropping the prenex, Dropping the prenex, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, bridi negation and logical connectives, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany, The North Wind and the Sun
dropping from multiple appearances on logical variables: Dropping the prenex
effect of order when multiple in sentence: Grouping of quantifiers
ro'a: The North Wind and the Sun
ro'anai: Emotional categories
example: Emotional categories
ro'e: Emotional categories
ro'o: Attitudinal modifiers, More about non-logical connectives
ro'u: Compound indicators
roi: Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Other uses of mekso, The North Wind and the Sun
ROI selma'o
effect of ZAhO on "fe'e" flag: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
exception on use of "boi" before: Other uses of mekso
scalar negation of: Tense negation
romai: Utterance ordinals: MAI
ropno: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
ru: Pro-sumti summary, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, The North Wind and the Sun
ru'a: Indicators, Evidentials
compared with ".e'u": Evidentials
ru'e: Attitudes as scales
ru'i: Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi
ru'inai: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
ru'o: Alien alphabets
ru'u: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
ruble: Attitudes as scales
rusko: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
rutrceraso: The North Wind and the Sun
ry.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

S

sa: The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
sa'a: Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Metalinguistic negation forms, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
editorial insertion of text already containing "sa'a": Miscellaneous indicators
interaction with "li'o": Miscellaneous indicators
interaction with "sei": Miscellaneous indicators
interaction with "to'i": Miscellaneous indicators
sa'enai: Discursives
sa'i: Vectors and matrices, Vectors and matrices, Vectors and matrices
sa'unai: Discursives
sadjo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
sai: More about non-logical connectives, The North Wind and the Sun
sakli: rafsi, rafsi
sakta: The North Wind and the Sun
salci: rafsi
salpo: The North Wind and the Sun
sampu: The North Wind and the Sun
sance: The North Wind and the Sun
sanga: The North Wind and the Sun
sanji: The North Wind and the Sun
sanli: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, The North Wind and the Sun
sanmi: The North Wind and the Sun
saske: fu'ivla
savru: The North Wind and the Sun
se: Varying the order of sumti, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Orthography, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion: SE, Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI, Modal selbri, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Why have lujvo?, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, The six types of logical connectives, Logical connection of bridi, Logical connection of bridi, Logical connection of bridi, Logical connection of bridi, Forethought bridi connection, sumti connection, Compound bridi, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives, Dropping the prenex, Dropping the prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Using naku outside a prenex, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law, Special mekso selbri, Miscellany, Subscripts: XI, The North Wind and the Sun
as grammatical in JOI compounds: Non-logical connectives
in logical connective to exchange sentences: Logical connection of bridi
order in logical connectives with "na": Logical connection of bridi
use with operators: Miscellany
using to re-order logical variables: Dropping the prenex
writing convention in eks: sumti connection
se du'u: Predication/sentence abstraction
se klama
place structure of: Conversion: SE
SE selma'o
after 5th place: Subscripts: XI, Subscripts: XI
compared with JAI and "fai": Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
effect on place structure numbering: Conversion: SE
effect on selbri place structure: Conversion: SE
extending scope of: Conversion: SE
for BAI selma'o: Modal conversion: JAI
for converting place structure: Conversion: SE
introduction to conversion: Conversion of simple selbri
ordering of multiple SE and effect on a selbri: Conversion: SE
rationale for no 1st place conversion: Conversion: SE
scope of: Conversion: SE
word formation of cmavo in: Conversion: SE
se te: Conversion: SE
se'a: Attitudinal modifiers
se'e: Computerized character codes, Computerized character codes, Computerized character codes
and number base convention: Computerized character codes
se'i: Attitudinal modifiers, The North Wind and the Sun
se'o: Evidentials, Evidentials
se'u: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
as elidable terminator for "soi": Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
elidability considerations: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
seba'i: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
sedu'u: The North Wind and the Sun
sei: Miscellaneous indicators, Tentative conclusion, Explicit operator precedence, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, The North Wind and the Sun
seja'e: Modal sentence connection: the causals
seja'eku: The North Wind and the Sun
seka'a: Modal tags: BAI
sela'u: The North Wind and the Sun
selbri: The concept of the bridi, The concept of the bridi, Lojban grammatical terms, Introductory
selkla: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
selma'o: Lojban grammatical terms, cmavo
selsku: Anomalous lujvo
seltau: Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
selti'i: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
selti'ifla: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau, Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
semau: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
seme'a: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
semto: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
semu'ibo: The North Wind and the Sun
senva: The North Wind and the Sun
sepi'o: Modal tags: BAI, Modal tags: BAI
seri'a: Modal sentence connection: the causals
serti: The North Wind and the Sun
sfofa: IPA for English speakers
si: The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
si'a: Discursives
si'e: Special mekso selbri, mekso selma'o summary
si'o: Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types
siclu: The North Wind and the Sun
sidju: The North Wind and the Sun
simlu: The North Wind and the Sun
simsa: The North Wind and the Sun
simxu: The North Wind and the Sun
since: fu'ivla
sinso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
sinxa: sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers
sipna: The North Wind and the Sun
sirji: The North Wind and the Sun
sirxo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
sisti: Metalinguistic negation forms
skari: Metalinguistic negation forms
skicu: The North Wind and the Sun
skoto: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
slabu: The North Wind and the Sun
slaka: The universal bu, The universal bu
sligu: The North Wind and the Sun
slovo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
smacu: The North Wind and the Sun
smudukti: The North Wind and the Sun
smuni: The North Wind and the Sun
snada: The North Wind and the Sun
so'a: Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany
so'e: Indefinite numbers, Indefinite numbers, Miscellany
so'i: Indefinite numbers, Miscellany, The North Wind and the Sun
so'imei: Some types of symmetrical tanru
so'o: Indefinite numbers, Miscellany, The North Wind and the Sun
so'u: Indefinite numbers, Miscellany, The North Wind and the Sun
softo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
soi: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
use in expressing reciprocity: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
use in expressing reciprocity with vo'a-series pro-sumti: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
with one following sumti; convention: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
solji: The North Wind and the Sun
solri: cmevla, The North Wind and the Sun
solxrula: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
sonci: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
sovda: The North Wind and the Sun
spageti: fu'ivla
spaji: The North Wind and the Sun
spano: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
spati: The North Wind and the Sun
spuda: The North Wind and the Sun
spusku: The North Wind and the Sun
sraji: The North Wind and the Sun
sraku: The North Wind and the Sun
sralo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, The North Wind and the Sun
srana: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
srito: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
sruri: The North Wind and the Sun
stali: Some words used to indicate selbri relations
steci: Relative phrases
stedu: The North Wind and the Sun
stela: The North Wind and the Sun
stero: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
stidi: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
stura: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
stuzi: The North Wind and the Sun
su: The uses of indicators, The universal bu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
su'a: Evidentials, Evidentials, Evidentials, Evidentials, Discursives
su'anai: Evidentials, Evidentials
su'e: Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany, The North Wind and the Sun
with elided number: Approximation and inexact numbers
su'i: Other kinds of simple selbri, Simple infix expressions and equations, Reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso, Four score and seven: a mekso problem
su'o: Quantified sumti, Quantified sumti, Quantified sumti, Quantified descriptions, Quantified descriptions, Lojban names, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Pro-sumti summary, Quotation summary, Number summary, Relative clauses and descriptors, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Variables with generalized quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Grouping of quantifiers, Negation boundaries, selbri variables, selbri variables, Approximation and inexact numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers, Miscellany, The North Wind and the Sun
as implicit quantifier for quotations: Quantified sumti
with elided number: Approximation and inexact numbers
su'oroi: The North Wind and the Sun
su'u: Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types
sudga: The North Wind and the Sun
sudysrasu: Some types of asymmetrical tanru, Some types of symmetrical tanru
suksa: The North Wind and the Sun
sumti: The concept of the bridi, The concept of the bridi, Lojban grammatical terms, Introductory
sunsicyjudri: The North Wind and the Sun
sutra: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Simple tanru, Simple tanru, Inversion of tanru: co, Scalar negation of selbri, Scalar negation of selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
sy.: brivla, A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

T

ta: Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
contrasted with "di'u": Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
ta'e: Interval properties: TAhE and roi, bridi negation, The North Wind and the Sun
ta'eku: The North Wind and the Sun
ta'i: The North Wind and the Sun
ta'o: The North Wind and the Sun
ta'onai: Discursives
ta'u: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
ta'unai: Discursives
tadji: The North Wind and the Sun
tagji: The North Wind and the Sun
TAhE selma'o
effect of ZAhO on "fe'e" flag: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
scalar negation of: Tense negation
tai: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, The North Wind and the Sun
tamdu'i: Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
tamsmi: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
tanjo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu, Using Lojban resources within mekso
tanru: tanru, Lojban grammatical terms, Simple tanru
tarmi: fu'ivla, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi
tatpi: The North Wind and the Sun
tau: Upper and lower cases, Upper and lower cases, Upper and lower cases
tavla: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Some simple Lojban bridi, tanru, Description sumti, The North Wind and the Sun
tcadu: The North Wind and the Sun
tcica: The North Wind and the Sun
tcidu: The North Wind and the Sun
tcika: The North Wind and the Sun
tcita: The North Wind and the Sun
te: Varying the order of sumti, Varying the order of sumti, Description sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, The North Wind and the Sun
te'a: Simple infix expressions and equations
te'e: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
te'o: Special numbers, Approximation and inexact numbers
te'u: Vectors and matrices, Using Lojban resources within mekso, Miscellany, Four score and seven: a mekso problem
teci'e: Expressing scales in selbri negation
tei: Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, Accent marks and compound lerfu words, What about Chinese characters?, List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo
teka'a: Modal tags: BAI
tense selma'o
summary of: Summary of tense selma'o
terbi'a: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
terdi: The North Wind and the Sun
tergu'i: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
terkavbu: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
terpa: The North Wind and the Sun
tertau: Simple tanru, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
terto: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
tezu'e: Modal sentence connection: the causals
ti: Words that can act as sumti, Tenses, The five kinds of simple sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, What are you pointing at?, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, The North Wind and the Sun
as pronoun expression for English this: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
ti noi
as adjective expression for this: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
ti'a: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
ti'e: Evidentials, Evidentials
ti'o: Explicit operator precedence, Explicit operator precedence, Explicit operator precedence
ti'otci: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
ti-series
3 degrees of distance with pro-sumti: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
contrasted with di'u-series pro-sumti: Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
conversational convention for pro-sumti: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
pro-sumti and lack of pro-bridi equivalent: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
pro-sumti as pointing referents only: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
pro-sumti compared with English this/that: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
problems in written text: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
tinju'i: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
tirna: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
tirxu: The North Wind and the Sun
tisna: The North Wind and the Sun
to: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, The North Wind and the Sun
to'a: Upper and lower cases, Upper and lower cases
to'e: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, Expressing scales in selbri negation, sumti negation
to'i: Miscellaneous indicators, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
to'isa'a: The North Wind and the Sun
to'o: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, The North Wind and the Sun
special note on direction orientation: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
to'u: Discursives
toi: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, The North Wind and the Sun
tolcanci: The North Wind and the Sun
tolmle: Expressing scales in selbri negation
tolpu'i: The North Wind and the Sun
tolvri: Some types of symmetrical tanru
tordu: The North Wind and the Sun
traji: Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, The North Wind and the Sun
tricu: fu'ivla, The North Wind and the Sun
trixe: The North Wind and the Sun
troci: Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, The North Wind and the Sun
tsali: Attitudes as scales
tu: Words that can act as sumti, Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series, What are you pointing at?, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
archaic English yon as equivalent of: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
tu'a: sumti qualifiers, Lojban sumti raising, Lojban sumti raising, Lojban sumti raising, Lojban sumti raising, Lojban sumti raising, Lojban sumti raising, The North Wind and the Sun
as being deliberately vague: sumti qualifiers
effect of on meaning: sumti qualifiers
use for forming abstractions: sumti qualifiers
tu'e: Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Mixed modal connection, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
contrasted with "bo" for tensed logical connection: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
effect on "di'e": More about non-logical connectives
use in lists: More about non-logical connectives
tu'o: Infix operators revisited, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation, Reverse Polish notation
for infix operations with too few operands: Infix operators revisited
tu'u: Modal selbri, Mixed modal connection, Mixed modal connection, Mixed modal connection, Tensed logical connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives, More about non-logical connectives, A few notes on variables, A few notes on variables, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Sentences: I, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
tubnu: The North Wind and the Sun
tugni: The North Wind and the Sun
tumla: The North Wind and the Sun
tunta: The North Wind and the Sun
tuple: The North Wind and the Sun
ty.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet

V

va: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, The North Wind and the Sun
VA selma'o
and distance: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
relation of words to "ti"
ta, tu: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
va'a: Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Infix operators revisited, Infix operators revisited, Reverse Polish notation, Other uses of mekso
va'e: Special mekso selbri, The North Wind and the Sun
va'i: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
contrasted with "ke'u": Discursives
va'inai: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
va'o: The North Wind and the Sun
va'u: The North Wind and the Sun
vacri: The North Wind and the Sun
vajni: The North Wind and the Sun
valsi: The North Wind and the Sun
vanci: The North Wind and the Sun
vasru: The North Wind and the Sun
vau: Relative clauses and descriptors, Possessive sumti, Other modal connections, Other modal connections, The syntax of abstraction, Compound bridi, Compound bridi, Compound bridi, Compound bridi, Compound bridi, Restricted claims: da poi, Questions and answers, Attitude scope markers: FUhE/FUhO, The North Wind and the Sun
avoiding for shared bridi-tail sumti: Other modal connections
effect on elidability of "ku'o": Possessive sumti
ve: Varying the order of sumti, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
ve klama: Conversion: SE
contrasted with "pluta": Conversion: SE
ve'a: The North Wind and the Sun
ve'e: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
ve'o: Other modal connections, Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)
vecnu: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, Description sumti, Modal tags: BAI
vei: Other modal connections, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Simple infix expressions and equations, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)
veka'a: Modal tags: BAI
veljvo: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
vemau: Comparatives and superlatives
veme'a: Comparatives and superlatives
vensa: The North Wind and the Sun
verba: The North Wind and the Sun
vi: Tenses, Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
as adjective expression for English this: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
vi'a: Dimensionality: VIhA
vi'e: Dimensionality: VIhA, Dimensionality: VIhA
vi'i: The North Wind and the Sun
vi'o
contrasted with "je'e": Vocative scales
vi'u: Dimensionality: VIhA
vikmi: The North Wind and the Sun
vindu: The North Wind and the Sun
vinji: The North Wind and the Sun
virnu: The North Wind and the Sun
viska: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, Modal places: FIhO, FEhU, The North Wind and the Sun
vlipa: The North Wind and the Sun
vo: Quantified sumti, What about Chinese characters?, Reverse Polish notation, The North Wind and the Sun
vo'a: Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
vo'a-series
pro-sumti use in expressing reciprocity with "soi": Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
referring to individual sumti of a bridi: Inversion of tanru: co
vo'e: Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
vo'i: Pro-sumti summary
vo'o: Pro-sumti summary
vo'u: Pro-sumti summary
vofli: The North Wind and the Sun
voi: Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, Non-veridical relative clauses: voi, The North Wind and the Sun
vorme: Lojban sumti raising, The North Wind and the Sun
vreji: The North Wind and the Sun
vrusi: The North Wind and the Sun
vu: Tenses, Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, The North Wind and the Sun
vu'a: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
vu'e: Attitudinal modifiers
vu'i: sumti qualifiers, The North Wind and the Sun
effect of on meaning: sumti qualifiers
use for creating sequence: sumti qualifiers
vu'o: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, The North Wind and the Sun
vu'u: Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)
VUhU selma'o
operands: Simple infix expressions and equations
vukro: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
vy.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, The North Wind and the Sun

X

xabju: The North Wind and the Sun
xagmau: Comparatives and superlatives
xagrai: Comparatives and superlatives
xajmi: The North Wind and the Sun
xamgu: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Comparatives and superlatives, The North Wind and the Sun
xampo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xamsi: The North Wind and the Sun
xance: Anomalous lujvo, The North Wind and the Sun
xanka: The North Wind and the Sun
xanri: The North Wind and the Sun
xanto: The North Wind and the Sun
xarci: lujvo with more than two parts., The North Wind and the Sun
xatsi: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xazdo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xe: Varying the order of sumti, Varying the order of sumti, Conversion of simple selbri, Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents, Subscripts: XI
xebro: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xecto: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xeka'a: Modal tags: BAI
xekri: Notes on gismu place structures, Notes on gismu place structures
xelso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xexso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xi: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, A few notes on variables, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Subscripts, Subscripts, Vectors and matrices, Subscripts: XI
xindo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xirnzebra: The North Wind and the Sun
xispo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xo: Number questions, Number questions, Number questions, Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
xokau: The North Wind and the Sun
xrabo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xrani: The North Wind and the Sun
xriso: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xruki: The North Wind and the Sun
xrula: The North Wind and the Sun
xu: The basic structure of longer utterances, Questions, Questions, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Miscellaneous indicators, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions, Metalinguistic negation forms, Questions and answers, The North Wind and the Sun
xu go'i
quick-tour version: Questions
xunblabi: The North Wind and the Sun
xunre: Logical connection within tanru, Expressing scales in selbri negation, The North Wind and the Sun
xurdo: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
xy.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, lerfu words as pro-sumti, Mathematical uses of lerfu strings, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions), Subscripts: XI

Z

za: The North Wind and the Sun
za'a: Indicators, Evidentials, The North Wind and the Sun
za'e: Considerations for making lujvo, The universal bu, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE, Contrastive emphasis: BAhE
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
use to avoid lujvo misunderstandings: Considerations for making lujvo
za'i: Types of event abstractions, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
place structure: Types of event abstractions
za'o: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses, The North Wind and the Sun
za'u: Approximation and inexact numbers
with elided number: Approximation and inexact numbers
za'ure'u: The North Wind and the Sun
zabna: Attitudinal modifiers
ZAhO selma'o: Tenses as sumtcita
contradictory negation of: Tense negation
effect on "fe'e" flag for TAhE and ROI: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
for expressing spatial contours: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
zai: Alien alphabets, Punctuation marks
zarci: Some words used to indicate selbri relations, The three basic description types, The three basic description types, The North Wind and the Sun
zbasu: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, The North Wind and the Sun
zdani: lujvo-making examples, lujvo-making examples, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Inversion of tanru: co, Inversion of tanru: co, Conversion: SE, Conversion: SE, Conversion: SE, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, The meaning of lujvo, Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Dependent places, Eliding SE rafsi from tertau, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, The North Wind and the Sun
ze'a: The North Wind and the Sun
ze'e: Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Interval properties: TAhE and roi, The North Wind and the Sun
effect on following PU direction: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
ze'eba
meaning of: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
ze'eca
meaning of: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
ze'epu
meaning of: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
ze'i: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA, The North Wind and the Sun
ze'o: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
special note on direction orientation: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
zei: rafsi, rafsi, rafsi, rafsi, rafsi, rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal, The universal bu, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
zenba: Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, The North Wind and the Sun
zepti: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
zerle'a: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
zernerkla: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
zetro: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
zgana: The North Wind and the Sun
zi: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI, The North Wind and the Sun
ZI selma'o
compared with VA: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
zi'e: Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, Multiple relative clauses: zi'e, The North Wind and the Sun
compared with English and : Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
contrasted with logical connectives: Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
use in connecting relative phrase/clause to relative phrase/clause: Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
zi'o: Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, lujvo based on pro-sumti, lujvo based on pro-sumti
as creating new selbri: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
rafsi of "zi'o"; effect of on place structure of lujvo: lujvo based on pro-sumti
zifre: The North Wind and the Sun
zmadu: rafsi, rafsi, rafsi, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, Other useful selbri for mekso bridi, The North Wind and the Sun
zo: The five kinds of simple sumti, Lojban names, The uses of indicators, The universal bu, References to lerfu, Quotations: LU, LIhU, LOhU, LEhU, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, No more to say: FAhO, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, List of cmavo interactions, The North Wind and the Sun
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
zo'a: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
zo'e: Some simple Lojban bridi, Some simple Lojban bridi, Variant bridi structure, Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Standard bridi form: cu, Standard bridi form: cu, Tagging places: FA, Indirect questions, Indirect questions, Compound bridi, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
as a translation for "something": Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
as place-holder for sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
as place-holder for unspecified sumti: Standard bridi form: cu
compared with FA for omitting places: Tagging places: FA
contrasted with "da": Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
zo'e-series
compared with "do'i" as indefinite pro-sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
pro-sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
zo'i: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
special note on direction orientation: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
zo'o: Discursives, Discursives
zo'u: Relative clauses within relative clauses, Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, The North Wind and the Sun
zoi: The five kinds of simple sumti, The universal bu, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, More on quotations: ZO, ZOI, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU, Erasure: SI, SA, SU
interaction with "bu": The universal bu
zu'a: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Compound spatial tenses, Tense relations between sentences, Tense relations between sentences, Tense relations between sentences, Explicit magnitudes, List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
derivation of word: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
zu'e: The North Wind and the Sun
zu'i: Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
zu'o: Types of event abstractions, Types of event abstractions, Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
place structure: Types of event abstractions
zu'u: The North Wind and the Sun
zukte: Notes on gismu place structures, The North Wind and the Sun
zuljma: rafsi, rafsi
zunle: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
zutse: The North Wind and the Sun
zvafa'i: The North Wind and the Sun
zvati: The North Wind and the Sun
zy.: A to Z in Lojban, plus one, Proposed lerfu words for the Greek alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet, Proposed lerfu words for the Hebrew alphabet, Forethought operators (Polish notation, functions)

General Index

Symbols

"a" is letteral: References to lerfu, References to lerfu
$: Computerized character codes
&
word for "&": The universal bu
'
"'" and consonant cluster determination in lujvo: lujvo
definition of symbol "'" (see also apostrophe): The special Lojban characters
(n + 1)(n + 1) = n² + 2n + 1: Simple infix expressions and equations
(n+1)-th rat: Special mekso selbri
+1 + -1 = 0: Simple infix expressions and equations
-1: Signs and numerical punctuation
-ek
in name for logical connectives: The six types of logical connectives
-er
use of zmadu in forming: rafsi
-ity: Property abstractions
-ness: Property abstractions
-ng
Lojban contrasted with English: Syllabication and stress
.
word for ".": The universal bu
.e'o: Propositional attitude indicators
1 + 1 = 2: Simple infix expressions and equations
10²⁰: Infix operators revisited
12-point: Alien alphabets
123: Lojban numbers
2 + 2: Truth-value abstraction: jei
2 rats + 2 rabbits = 4 animals: Using Lojban resources within mekso
2/7: Signs and numerical punctuation
3 grams: Simple infix expressions and equations
3 × 10⁸: Infix operators revisited
3.1415: Signs and numerical punctuation
4-letter rafsi
definition: rafsi
5-letter rafsi
definition: rafsi
9 out of 10: Special mekso selbri
ℵ₀: Special numbers

A

A
notation convention for logical connectives: The four basic vowels
A gives B to C: lerfu words as pro-sumti
A gives BC: lerfu words as pro-sumti
A loves B: lerfu words as pro-sumti
a/an
contrasted with English "the": Miscellaneous indicators
abbreviated lujvo and plausibility: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
ABC base 16: Non-decimal and compound bases
abduction
example: Evidentials
Abraham Lincoln: Truth questions and connective questions
absolute laws: Why have lujvo?
abstract description: Lojban sumti raising
abstract lujvo: Abstract lujvo
abstraction bridi
contrasted with component non-abstraction bridi in meaning: Other kinds of simple selbri
effect on claim of bridi: Modal sentence connection: the causals
abstraction conversion: Lojban sumti raising
abstraction of sentences
contrasted with quotation: Predication/sentence abstraction
abstractions
achievement: Types of event abstractions
activity: Types of event abstractions
concept: Minor abstraction types
creating new types: Minor abstraction types
event: Event abstraction
experience: Minor abstraction types
forethought connection in: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
grammatical uses: The syntax of abstraction
grouping of connectives in: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
idea: Minor abstraction types
implicit in sumti: Event abstraction
logical connection of: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
making concrete: Lojban sumti raising
mental activity: Predication/sentence abstraction
place structure: The syntax of abstraction
point-event: Types of event abstractions
process: Types of event abstractions
simplification to sumti with "jai": Lojban sumti raising
simplification to sumti with "tu'a": Lojban sumti raising
speaking
writing, etc.: Predication/sentence abstraction
state: Types of event abstractions
sumti ellipsis in: Event abstraction
truth-value and fuzzy logic: Truth-value abstraction: jei
vague: Minor abstraction types
with knowing
believing, etc.: Predication/sentence abstraction
with wonder
doubt, etc.: Indirect questions
accent mark
a diacritical mark: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
example: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
accent marks
proposed lerfu words for: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
accented letters
considered as distinct from unaccented: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
Acer: fu'ivla
achievative event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
achievement abstraction
place structure: Types of event abstractions
achievement abstractions
definition: Types of event abstractions
related tense contours: Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
achievement event
described: Types of event abstractions
acronym
definition: Acronyms
acronym names from lerfu words
assigning final consonant: Acronyms
acronyms
as lerfu strings using "me": Acronyms
using names based on lerfu words: Acronyms
acronyms names based on lerfu words
omitting "bu": Acronyms
using "z" instead of "'" in: Acronyms
activity abstraction
place structure: Types of event abstractions
activity abstractions
definition: Types of event abstractions
related tense contours: Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
activity abstractor: Types of event abstractions
activity event
described: Types of event abstractions
actual events
explicitly expressing: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
actual stop
contrasted with natural end: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
actuality
expressing in past/future: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
Lojban contrasted with English in implying: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
addition
a mathematical operator: Simple infix expressions and equations
addition operator
contrasted with positive sign: Simple infix expressions and equations
addition problems: Other kinds of simple selbri
adjective ordering: Logical connection within tanru
adjective-noun combination
with tanru: Simple tanru
adjectives
brivla as Lojban equivalents: brivla
adverb-verb combination
with tanru: Simple tanru
adverbs
brivla as Lojban equivalents: brivla
affirmative answer
quick-tour version: Questions
afraid of horse: Relative clauses and descriptors
afterthought bridi connectives
contrasted with forethought bridi connectives: Forethought bridi connection
afterthought connection
contrasted with forethought for grammatical utterances: Truth questions and connective questions
definition: Other modal connections
of operands: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
of operators: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
afterthought connectives
as complete grammatical utterance: Truth questions and connective questions
contrasted with forethought connectives: Forethought bridi connection
afterthought sentence connection
modal contrasted with tense: Tenses versus modals
afterthought tense connection
contrasted with forethought in likeness to modal connection: Tenses versus modals
ailment: Ordering lujvo places.
Alexander Pavlovitch Kuznetsov: lerfu words as pro-sumti
algebra of functions
operator and operand distinction in: Miscellany
alienable possession
definition: Relative phrases
aliens
communication with: Tentative conclusion
all-th: Special mekso selbri
allowable diphthongs
in fu'ivla contrasted with in gismu and lujvo: fu'ivla
in gismu and lujvo contrasted with in fu'ivla: fu'ivla
alpha
example: Alien alphabets
alphabet
Latin used for Lojban: What's a letteral, anyway?
Lojban: Orthography
words for letters in
rationale: What's a letteral, anyway?
alphabetic order: Orthography
alphabets
words for non-Lojban letters
rationale: What's a letteral, anyway?
alternative guidelines: Why have lujvo?
always and everywhere: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
ambiguity of tanru: Simple tanru
American dollars: Computerized character codes
American Indian languages and evidentials: Evidentials
Amharic writing: What about Chinese characters?
ampersand
example: The universal bu
ampersand character
word for: The universal bu
Amsterdam: Buffering of consonant clusters
anaphora
definition: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-bridi go'i-series as: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-sumti ri-series as: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
pro-sumti vo'a-series as: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
anaphoric pro-bridi
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
anaphoric pro-sumti
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
and
as non-logical connective: Non-logical connectives
compared with but: Truth questions and connective questions
contrasted with cross-product: More about non-logical connectives
and earlier: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
and simultaneously: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
and then: Tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection
animal doctor
example: Ordering lujvo places.
animal patient: Ordering lujvo places.
animals
use of fu'ivla for specific: fu'ivla
anomalous ordering of lujvo places: lujvo with more than two parts.
answers
"go'i" for yes/no questions: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
to operator questions: Other uses of mekso
to place structure questions: Tagging places: FA
to tense-or-modal questions: Tense questions: cu'e
antecedent
for pro-bridi: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
for pro-bridi as full bridi: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
antecedent of pro-bridi
definition: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
antecedent of pro-sumti
definition: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
anticipated
example: Evidentials
any
as a restricted universal claim: The problem of “any”
as a translation problem: The problem of “any”
as a universal claim
later restricted: The problem of “any”
as an existential claim: The problem of “any”
expressing as existential by variable in subordinate bridi: The problem of “any”
any box: The problem of “any”
anyone
contrasted with everyone in assumption of existence: The problem of “any”
anyone who goes
walks: The problem of “any”
aorist
definition: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
apostrophe
and consonant cluster determination in lujvo: lujvo
as not a consonant for morphological discussions: Introductory
as preferable over comma in Lojbanized names: The special Lojban characters
definition of: The special Lojban characters
example of: The special Lojban characters
purpose of: The special Lojban characters
quick-tour version: Pronunciation
type of letter in word-formation: The special Lojban characters
use in vowel pairs: Vowel pairs
variant of: The special Lojban characters
Appassionata: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
approximate numbers
expressing: Approximation and inexact numbers
expressing some exactness of: Approximation and inexact numbers
approximately 40: Approximation and inexact numbers
Arabian Nights: Paragraphs: NIhO
Arabic alphabet
language shift word for: Alien alphabets
argument tags
based on tenses (see also sumtcita): Tenses as sumtcita
Armstrong: Syllabication and stress
Arnold: cmevla
arthropod: Dependent places
article
number: Simple infix expressions and equations
articles
cmavo as Lojban equivalents: cmavo
Artur Rubenstein: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
ASCII
application to lerfu words: Computerized character codes
aspect
expressing: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
natural languages compared with respect to: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
assignable pro-sumti
explicit cancellation of by rebinding: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
assumption: Evidentials
asymmetrical tanru: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
definition: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
asymmetrical tanru types
activity + implement-used: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
cause + effect: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
characteristic-time + event: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
characteristic/detail + object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
effect + causative agent: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
elements-in-set + set: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
energy-source + powered: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
general-class + sub-class: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
inhabitant + habitat: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
locus-of-application + object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
miscellaneous: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
object + component/detail: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
object + place-sold: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
object + usual-container: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
object-giving-characteristic + other-object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
object-measured + standard-object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
object-of-action + action: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
object-of-purpose-of-instrument + instrument: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
overriding-property + object-with-implicit-properties: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
possessor + object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
product + producer: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
product + source: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
purpose-of-instrument + instrument: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
set + element-of-set: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
similar-appearance-object + object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
source + product: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
source-material + object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
typical-place + object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
undesired-object + protection-object: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
whole + part: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
at least: Approximation and inexact numbers
contrasted with more than
less than, at most: Approximation and inexact numbers
at least two: Approximation and inexact numbers
at most: Approximation and inexact numbers
contrasted with more than
at least, less than: Approximation and inexact numbers
at most two: Approximation and inexact numbers
Athens: Types of event abstractions
attend school: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
attitude
avoidance of expression: Miscellaneous indicators
scalar: Attitudes as scales
attitudes
beginning: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
ceasing: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
continuing: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
empathy contrasted with sympathy: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
expressing changes in: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
attitudinal
example of scale effect: Attitudes as scales
signaling as non-propositional: Propositional attitude indicators
attitudinal answers
plausibility: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
attitudinal categories: Emotional categories
example of effect: Emotional categories
mnemonic for: Emotional categories
rationale: Emotional categories
attitudinal indicator
unspecified: Compound indicators
attitudinal indicators: What are attitudinal indicators?
conventions of interpretation: Compound indicators
placement of "nai" in: Compound indicators
placement of scale in: Compound indicators
quick-tour version: Indicators
attitudinal modifiers: Attitudinal modifiers
attitudinal questions: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
asking about specific attitude: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
asking intensity: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
attitudinal scale
as axis in emotion-space: The space of emotions
neutral compared with positive + negative: The space of emotions
seven-position: Attitudes as scales
stand-alone usage: Attitudes as scales
usage: Attitudes as scales
attitudinal scales
rationale for assignment: Attitudes as scales
attitudinals
a- series: Propositional attitude indicators
affecting whole grammatical structures: The uses of indicators
and logic: What's wrong with this picture?
at beginning of text: The uses of indicators
attributing emotion to others: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
benefit in written expression: The uses of indicators
categories with nai: Emotional categories
categories with scale markers: Emotional categories
complexity: Attitudinal modifiers
compound: What are attitudinal indicators?
contours: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
contrasted with bridi: Propositional attitude indicators, The space of emotions
contrasted with discursives: Discursives
contrasted with rationalizations of emotion: The space of emotions
design benefit: The space of emotions
e- series: Propositional attitude indicators
emotional contrasted with propositional: Propositional attitude indicators
emotional/propositional caveat: Propositional attitude indicators
exceptions: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
external grammar: The uses of indicators
grammar of internal compounding: Compound indicators
grammar of placement in bridi: The uses of indicators
i- series: Propositional attitude indicators
internal grammar
complete: Compound indicators
logical language and: Propositional attitude indicators
negative: Attitudes as scales
neutral: Attitudes as scales
non-speaker attitudes: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
order of: The space of emotions
placement for prevailing attitude: What are attitudinal indicators?
placement in sentences with "nai": Compound indicators
positive: Attitudes as scales
prevailing attitude: What are attitudinal indicators?
propositional contrasted with emotional: Propositional attitude indicators
propositional effect on claim: Propositional attitude indicators
propositional/emotional caveat: Propositional attitude indicators
rationale for: Propositional attitude indicators
referent uncertainty: The uses of indicators
scale of: Attitudes as scales
stand-alone categories: Emotional categories
word-form for primary: What are attitudinal indicators?
audio-visual isomorphism: Orthography
audio-visually isomorphic: Sentences: I
auditoriums: Dependent places
author of this book: Acknowledgements and credits
Avon: Modal tags: BAI

B

back-counting pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary
background noise: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
base
assumed: Non-decimal and compound bases
changing permanently: Non-decimal and compound bases
non-constant: Non-decimal and compound bases
specifying: Non-decimal and compound bases
vague: Non-decimal and compound bases
base greater than 16
compound single-digits contrasted with two digits: Non-decimal and compound bases
expressing numbers in: Non-decimal and compound bases
two digits contrasted with compound single-digits: Non-decimal and compound bases
base point
in bases other than 10: Non-decimal and compound bases
base varying for each digit
separator for: Non-decimal and compound bases
base-20 arithmetic
remnants of: Four score and seven: a mekso problem
basis
example: Evidentials
beach
example: Property abstractions
bear wrote story: The three basic description types
Bears wrote book: Individuals and masses
beautiful dog: The sumti di'u and la'e di'u
because
four varieties of English word "because": Modal sentence connection: the causals
beefsteak: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
Beethoven: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
beetle: Dependent places
beetles: Dependent places
begin
contrasted with resume: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
beginning point
spatial: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
being alive: Types of event abstractions
better: Comparatives and superlatives
between Dresden and Frankfurt: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection, Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
beverage
example: lujvo based on pro-sumti
bibliography: Informal bibliography
bicycle race: Minor abstraction types
big boat: lujvo
big nose: What are you pointing at?
big nose-pores: What are you pointing at?
big person: What are you pointing at?
big red dog: Logical connection within tanru
Bill Clinton: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
binary system
specifying numbers in (see also base): Non-decimal and compound bases
blue
as sad: Miscellaneous indicators
blue and red: Non-logical connectives
blue house: Conversion: SE, Logical connection within tanru, Logical connection within tanru
blue-eyed: Eliding SE rafsi from tertau
bo
for right-grouping in tanru: Complex tanru grouping
boat class
example: lujvo-making examples
boat sailed: Tenses as sumtcita
bold
example: Alien alphabets
bomb destroyed fifty miles: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
bone bread: Buffering of consonant clusters
books about Lojban: Informal bibliography
borrowing
four stages of: fu'ivla
borrowing from other language
fu'ivla as: brivla
borrowings
fu'ivla form with categorizing rafsi: fu'ivla
fu'ivla form without categorizing rafsi: fu'ivla
most common form for: fu'ivla
Stage 1: fu'ivla
Stage 2: fu'ivla
Stage 3: fu'ivla
Stage 3 contrasted with Stage 4 in ease of construction: fu'ivla
Stage 4: fu'ivla
using foreign-language name: fu'ivla
using lojbanized name: fu'ivla
Boston from Atlanta: Standard bridi form: cu
both dogs: Indefinite numbers
bound variable pro-sumti
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
bovine: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
bracketed remark: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
brackets
use in IPA notation: Basic phonetics
breathe: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
bridi
building from selbri and sumti: Standard bridi form: cu
compared with predication: The concept of the bridi
concept of: The concept of the bridi
definition: Lojban content words: brivla
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
effect of alternate form on sumti order: Standard bridi form: cu
effect of using non-standard form: Standard bridi form: cu
exception to sumti place structure in: Standard bridi form: cu
leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e: Standard bridi form: cu
leaving end sumti places unspecified in: Standard bridi form: cu
logical connection with negation: Logical connection of bridi
logical connective for: Logical connection of bridi
non-standard form: Standard bridi form: cu
omitting the first sumti place: Standard bridi form: cu
quick-tour version: Some simple Lojban bridi
relation to selbri: Lojban content words: brivla
selbri-first as exceptional: Standard bridi form: cu
standard form of: Standard bridi form: cu
bridi connection
use of imperatives in: Truth questions and connective questions
use of truth questions in: Truth questions and connective questions
bridi logical connection
compared with sumti logical connections: sumti connection
bridi negation
and DeMorgan's Law: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
and negation boundary: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
compared with negation between sentences: bridi negation and logical connectives
multiple: Tenses and bridi negation
na before selbri compared to naku in prenex: Negation boundaries
naku in prenex compared to na before selbri: Negation boundaries
relative order with tense: Tenses and bridi negation
two forms of: Negation boundaries
bridi negation and logical connectives: bridi negation and logical connectives
bridi questions
quick-tour version: Questions
bridi-based comparison
contrasted with comparison with relative phrase
in claims about parts: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
bridi-tail
definition: Compound bridi
bridi-tail logical connection
and DeMorgan's Law: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
bridi-tail modal connection: Other modal connections
bridi-tails
eliding "vau" in: Compound bridi
forethought tense connection of: Tense relations between sentences
brie: fu'ivla
brivla
as one of the 3 basic word classes: Introductory
consonant pairs in: brivla
definition: brivla
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
from tanru: lujvo
properties of: brivla
recognition of: brivla
relation to bridi: The concept of the bridi
stress on: Syllabication and stress
subtypes of: brivla
types: Lojban content words: brivla
types of
quick-tour version: Examples of brivla
brivla as selbri: Lojban content words: brivla
brivla equivalents: Other kinds of simple selbri
brivla form
contrasted with cmavo form: brivla
contrasted with cmevla form: brivla
Brooklyn: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
brothers: Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives, Non-logical connectives
Brown
James Cooke: Acknowledgements and credits
and "letteral": What's a letteral, anyway?
John: cmevla, cmevla
buffer vowel: Buffering of consonant clusters
and stress: Buffering of consonant clusters
shortening of: Buffering of consonant clusters
Bulgarian: fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla
but
compared with and: Truth questions and connective questions
example: Discursives
but/and equivalence: Indicators
butter is soft: Individuals and masses
butterfly
social: tanru

C

C string
as a symbol for a single consonant: Introductory
C/C string
as a symbol for a permissible consonant pair: Introductory
C/CC string
as a symbol for a consonant triple: Introductory
calculator mathematics
as default in Lojban: Simple infix expressions and equations
can see: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
canceling letter shifts: Alien alphabets
cancellation of pro-sumti/pro-bridi assignment
with "da'o": Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
capital letters
use in Lojban: Upper and lower cases
use of: Orthography
capitalization
for unusual stress in names: cmevla
use in names: cmevla
use of: cmevla
car goer: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
cardinal selbri
definition: Special mekso selbri
place structure: Special mekso selbri
place structure effect from subjective numbers: Special mekso selbri
cardinality
definition: Masses and sets
property of sets: Masses and sets
carried piano: Non-logical connectives
carry sack: Mixed modal connection
carry sack and dog: Tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives
carry the piano: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
Cartesian product
with tenses: Sub-events
Carthage destroyed: Evidentials
case
upper/lower specification: Upper and lower cases
cat of plastic: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
Catherine: cmevla
Cathy: cmevla
causals
claiming the relation contrasted with claiming cause and/or effect and/or relation: Modal sentence connection: the causals
gismu: Modal sentence connection: the causals
modal: Modal sentence connection: the causals
cause death: Lojban sumti raising
cave: Story time
CC string
as a symbol for a permissible initial consonant pair: Introductory
CCVVCV fu'ivla
and rafsi fu'ivla proposal: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
cedilla
a diacritical mark: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
cessitive event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
ch-sound in English
representation in Lojban: Basic phonetics
chapter numbering: Other uses of mekso
chapter titles
intent of: What is this book?
character codes
definition: Computerized character codes
character encoding schemes
application to lerfu words: Computerized character codes
characters
definition: Computerized character codes
special: The special Lojban characters
Chelsea Clinton: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
chemical elements
use of single-letter shift for: Upper and lower cases
Chief: cmevla
child on ice: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
Chilean desert
example: rafsi fu'ivla: a proposal
Chinese characters
contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries: What about Chinese characters?
representing based on pinyin spelling: What about Chinese characters?
representing based on strokes: What about Chinese characters?
choose from: Non-logical connectives
Chrysler: selbri based on sumti: me
CIA: Acronyms
circumflex
a diacritical mark: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
clamshells: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
clarity of sounds: Basic phonetics
Classical Greek aorist tense
compared with Lojban tense: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
closed interval: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
expressed with "mi'i": Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
closings
letter: Vocative scales
cmavo
as one of the 3 basic word classes: Introductory
compound: cmavo
contrasted with rafsi in usage: rafsi
contrasted with same-form rafsi in meaning: lujvo
definition: cmavo
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
diphthongs in: cmavo
experimental: cmavo
for experimental use: cmavo
lack of relation of form to grammatical use: cmavo
rules for pause after Cy-form: Rules for inserting pauses
simple: cmavo
stress on: Syllabication and stress, cmavo
structure of: cmavo
cmavo and gismu
major: gismu
cmavo as selbri
quick-tour version: Examples of brivla
cmavo form
contrasted with brivla form: brivla
cmavo without rafsi
method of including in lujvo: rafsi
cmevla
algorithm for: cmevla
and analyzability of speech stream: cmevla
as one of the 3 basic word classes: Introductory
authority for: cmevla
avoiding impermissible consonant clusters in: cmevla
consonant clusters permitted in: cmevla
definition: cmevla
dot side: cmevla
examples of: cmevla
from Lojban words: cmevla
method of including in lujvo: rafsi
purpose of: cmevla
rationale for lojbanizing: cmevla
requirement for pauses around: cmevla
rules for: cmevla
rules for formation: cmevla
rules for pause before: Rules for inserting pauses
stress in: cmevla, cmevla
stress on: Syllabication and stress
unusual stress in: cmevla
cmevla form
contrasted with brivla form: brivla
cobra: fu'ivla
coffee mixed with tea: More about non-logical connectives
coffee or tea: Truth questions and connective questions
coin heads: Special mekso selbri
Coleoptera: Dependent places
color standards: Notes on gismu place structures
comma
definition of: The special Lojban characters
effect on relative clause in English: Incidental relative clauses
example of: The special Lojban characters
main use of: The special Lojban characters
optional: The special Lojban characters
quick-tour version: Pronunciation
variant of: The special Lojban characters
command
contrasted with observative form: Standard bridi form: cu
commands
quick-tour version: Vocatives and commands
with "ko": Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
commas in numbers
as numerical punctuation: Signs and numerical punctuation
effect of other notation conventions: Signs and numerical punctuation
with elided digits: Signs and numerical punctuation
common abstractor: Event abstraction
commutative truth functions: The four basic vowels
comparative lujvo
against former state: Comparatives and superlatives
and seltau presupposition: Comparatives and superlatives
potential ambiguity in: Comparatives and superlatives
standardized meanings: Comparatives and superlatives
comparatives
use of zmadu in forming: rafsi
comparison
claims related to based on form: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
comparison with relative phrase
contrasted with bridi-based comparison
in claims about parts: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
completitive event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
complex logical connection
grouping strategies contrasted: Grouping of afterthought connectives
complex logical connectives
grouping with bo: Grouping of afterthought connectives
grouping with parentheses: Grouping of afterthought connectives, Grouping of afterthought connectives
complex movements
expressing: Movement in space: MOhI
complex negation
examples: Scalar negation of selbri
complex numbers
expressing: Special numbers
components contrasted with mass
in properties of: Non-logical connectives
compound base
definition: Non-decimal and compound bases
expressing digits in: Non-decimal and compound bases
separator for: Non-decimal and compound bases
compound bridi
definition: Compound bridi
logical connection of: Compound bridi
more than one sumti in common: Compound bridi
multiple with "bo": Multiple compound bridi
multiple with "ke…ke'e": Multiple compound bridi
one sumti in common: Compound bridi
separate tail-terms for bridi-tails: Multiple compound bridi
separate tail-terms for forethought-connected bridi-tails: Multiple compound bridi
compound bridi with more than one sumti in common
with common sumti first: Compound bridi
with vau: Compound bridi
compound cmavo
compared with sequence of simple cmavo: cmavo
definition: cmavo
recognition of: cmavo
compound emotions: The space of emotions
compound letters
native language
representing as distinct letters: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
compound logical connectives
components: The six types of logical connectives
naming convention: The six types of logical connectives
compound of gismu
lujvo as: brivla
compound spatial tense
as direction with-or-without distance: Compound spatial tenses
beginning with distance only: Compound spatial tenses
effect of different ordering: Compound spatial tenses
explanation of: Compound spatial tenses
with direction and distance: Compound spatial tenses
compound subscript: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso, Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
compound temporal tense
beginning with distance only: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
compound tense
compared with multiple tenses in sentence: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
compared with tense in scope of sticky tense: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
definition: Compound spatial tenses
Lojban contrasted with English in order of specification: Compound spatial tenses
compound tense ordering
Lojban contrasted with English: Compound spatial tenses
computer interaction: No more to say: FAhO
concept abstraction: Minor abstraction types
concept abstractions
place structure: Minor abstraction types
concept abstractor: Minor abstraction types
concrete terms
use of fu'ivla for: fu'ivla
condescension: Attitudinal modifiers
confusion
metalinguistic: Miscellaneous indicators
confusion about what was said: Miscellaneous indicators
conjunctions
cmavo as Lojban equivalents: cmavo
connected tenses
negation of compared with negation in connective: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
connecting operands
with "bo" in connective: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
with "ke" in connective: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
connecting operators
with "bo" in connective: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
with "ke" in connective: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
connection
non-distributed: Non-logical connectives
simultaneously modal and logical: Mixed modal connection
connection of operands
grouping: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
precedence over operator: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
connection of operators
grouping: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
connective answers
non-logical: More about non-logical connectives
connective question answers
contrasted with other languages: Truth questions and connective questions
connective question cmavo
departure from regularity of: Truth questions and connective questions
connective questions
answering: Truth questions and connective questions
compared with other languages: Truth questions and connective questions
non-logical: More about non-logical connectives
connectives
as complete grammatical utterance: Truth questions and connective questions
as ungrammatical utterance: Truth questions and connective questions
table by constructs connected: Constructs and appropriate connectives
consonant
definition: Consonant clusters
effect on syllable count: Consonant clusters
consonant clusters
buffering of: Buffering of consonant clusters
contrasted with doubled consonants: Consonant clusters
contrasted with single consonants: Consonant clusters
definition of: Consonant clusters
more than three consonants in: Initial consonant pairs
consonant pairs
in brivla: brivla
initial: Initial consonant pairs
letter "y" within: brivla
restrictions on: Consonant clusters
consonant triples: Initial consonant pairs
restrictions on: Initial consonant pairs
consonant-final words
necessity for pause after: Rules for inserting pauses
consonants
contrasted with vowels: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
final: Consonant clusters
position of: Consonant clusters
pronunciation of
quick-tour version: Pronunciation
restrictions on: Consonant clusters
syllabic: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
voiced/unvoiced equivalents: Consonant clusters
voicing of: Consonant clusters
continents
gismu for: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
continues: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
continuitive event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
continuous
of tense intervals: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
contradictory negation
using "naku" before selbri: Using naku outside a prenex
contradictory negation of modals
explanation of meaning: Modal negation
contributors to this book: Acknowledgements and credits
conversion
accessing tense of bridi with "jai": Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
definition: Conversion of simple selbri, Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
effect of multiple on a selbri: Conversion: SE
effect on BAI: Modal tags: BAI
extending scope of: Conversion: SE
modal: Modal conversion: JAI
of BAI cmavo: Modal tags: BAI
of operator places: Miscellany
scope of: Conversion: SE
swapping non-first places: Conversion: SE
swapping with modal place: Modal conversion: JAI
conversion and tanru: Conversion of simple selbri
conversion into sumti from mekso: Simple infix expressions and equations
conversion of mekso into sumti: Simple infix expressions and equations
conversion of operand into operator: Miscellany
conversion of operator into operand: Miscellany
conversion of operator into selbri: Other uses of mekso
conversion of selbri into operand: Using Lojban resources within mekso
conversion of selbri into operator: Using Lojban resources within mekso
conversion of sentence with quantified variables
technique: Using naku outside a prenex
conversion of sumti into operand: Using Lojban resources within mekso
conversion of sumti into selbri: selbri based on sumti: me
conversion with "se"
effect of "naku" negation boundary on conversion: Using naku outside a prenex
conversion with ke: Conversion of simple selbri
converted selbri
as different selbri from unconverted: Conversion: SE
as resetting standard order: Conversion: SE
compared with selbri with FA in meaning: Conversion: SE
contrasted with other similar selbri: Conversion: SE
contrasted with selbri with FA in structure: Conversion: SE
definition: Conversion: SE
forming with SE: Conversion: SE
in descriptions: Conversion: SE
place structure of: Conversion: SE
retention of basic meaning in: Conversion: SE
to access non-first place in description: Conversion: SE
creative understanding: Why have lujvo?
credits for pictures: Acknowledgements and credits
credits for this book: Acknowledgements and credits
cross product
with tenses: Sub-events
cross-dependency: Dependent places
cross-product
contrasted with "and": More about non-logical connectives
of sets: More about non-logical connectives
cultural knowledge
example: Evidentials
cultural words
rafsi fu'ivla proposal for: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
culturally dependent lujvo: Miscellaneous indicators
cup's friend: Relative phrases
curious: Predication/sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction
Cy-form cmavo
rules for pause after: Rules for inserting pauses
cycles: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
Cyrillic alphabet
language shift word for: Alien alphabets
proposed lerfu words for: Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet

D

da'a
default number for: Indefinite numbers
decimal point
as numerical punctuation: Signs and numerical punctuation
effect of different notations: Signs and numerical punctuation
in bases other than 10: Non-decimal and compound bases
deduction
example: Evidentials
default operator precedence
contrasted with mekso goal: Simple infix expressions and equations
deference: Attitudinal modifiers
definable pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary
sequences of lerfu words as: Pro-sumti summary
definite numbers
combined with indefinite: Indefinite numbers
demonstrated potential
expressing: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
demonstrative pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
DeMorgan's Law
and bridi-tail logical connection: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
and distributing a negation: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
and internal "naku" negations: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
and logically connected sentences: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
and moving a logical connective relative to "naku": Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
sample applications: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
dereferencing a pointer
with "la'e": sumti qualifiers
derivational morphology
definition: Introductory
derogatory terms: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
descriptions
and abstractions: The syntax of abstraction
as based on first place of following selbri: Conversion: SE
as possessive sumti: Possessive sumti
components of: The three basic description types
importance of selbri first place in: The three basic description types
non-specific: The three basic description types
quick-tour version: Description sumti
specific: The three basic description types
types of: The three basic description types, The three basic description types
use of SE in: Conversion: SE
descriptions with lo
teddy bear contrasted with real bear: The three basic description types
descriptor
as part of description: The three basic description types
descriptors
implicit quantifiers for: Quantified descriptions
omission of: Indefinite descriptions
purpose of: The three basic description types
destination: Conversion: SE
Devanagari: Alien alphabets
diacritic marks
proposed lerfu words for: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
diacritical marks
as lerfu: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
considered as forming distinct letters: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
order of specification within "tei…foi": Accent marks and compound lerfu words
problem of position: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
problem with multiple on one lerfu: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
specifying with "tei…foi": Accent marks and compound lerfu words
dictionary
superior authority of: Disclaimers
die after living: Tenses as sumtcita
digit questions: Number questions
digit string
definition of: Other uses of mekso
digits
cmavo for: Lojban numbers
list of decimal: Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers
list of hexadecimal: Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers
names from: Miscellany
rafsi for: Miscellany
rationale for having 16: Non-decimal and compound bases
digits beyond 9
word pattern: Non-decimal and compound bases
dimension
meaning as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
dimensionality
of walking: Dimensionality: VIhA
order with size in spatial tense intervals: Dimensionality: VIhA
dimensionality of interval
as subjective: Dimensionality: VIhA
dimensioned numbers
expressing: Using Lojban resources within mekso
diphthongs
classification of: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
contrasted with vowel pairs: Vowel pairs
definition of: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
English analogues of: English analogues for Lojban diphthongs
in fu'ivla: fu'ivla
IPA for: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
list of: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
pronunciation of
quick-tour version: Pronunciation
specific to cmevla: cmevla
specific to names: cmevla
direct address: Vocative scales
direction
following interval in tense construct: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
interaction with movement specification in tenses: Movement in space: MOhI
order of relative to distance in spatial tenses: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
reference frame for: Movement in space: MOhI
specification with FAhA: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
directions
multiple with movement: Movement in space: MOhI
disambiguated instance: The meaning of lujvo
disclaimers: Disclaimers
discourse
commentary on: Discursives
expressing utterance relation to: Discursives
gesture markers: Discursives
tone of voice markers: Discursives
discrete
of tense intervals: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
discursive indicator: Paragraphs: NIhO
discursives
"su'a" as: Evidentials
as metalinguistic claims: Discursives
contrasted with attitudinals: Discursives
definition: Discursives
discourse commentary: Discursives
discourse management: Discursives
embedded: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
expressing how things are said: Discursives
knowledge: Discursives
placement in sentence: Discursives
quick-tour version: Indicators
word-level: Discursives
discursives for consecutive discourse: Discursives
contrasted: Discursives
discursives for managing discourse flow: Discursives
discuss in language: More about non-logical connectives
distance
order of relative to direction in spatial tenses: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
specification with VA: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
distributing a negation: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
distribution of quantified sumti: Grouping of quantifiers
ditto
example: Discursives
diversified species: Notes on gismu place structures
DNA: Acronyms
doctor and then rich: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
dog bites: Dropping the prenex
dog breathes: Restricted claims: da poi
dog house
example: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
dog or cat: Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions and connective questions, Truth questions and connective questions
doghouse: The meaning of lujvo
example: lujvo-making examples
dogs bite: Grouping of quantifiers
Dong: Ordering lujvo places., Ordering lujvo places., Ordering lujvo places.
double negation
and "naku": Using naku outside a prenex
double negatives
effect of interactions between quantifiers and negation on: Negation boundaries
double underscore notation convention for Quick Tour chapter: The concept of the bridi
doubled consonants
contrasted with consonant clusters: Consonant clusters
contrasted with single consonants: Consonant clusters
dream
example: Evidentials
du
as an exception within GOhA selma'o: Other kinds of simple selbri
ducks swim: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA

E

E
notation convention for logical connectives: The four basic vowels
Earl
example: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
eat in airplane: Movement in space: MOhI
eat themselves: Indefinite numbers
editorial commentary: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
editorial insertion: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
of text already containing "sa'a": Miscellaneous indicators
with "sa'a": Miscellaneous indicators
Einsteinian
space-time intervals with 4 dimensions: Dimensionality: VIhA
ek
definition: The six types of logical connectives
eks
connecting operands: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
in sumti forethought logical connection: sumti connection
elementary schools: Dependent places
Elgin
Suzette Haden and evidentials: Evidentials
elided tense
meaning of: Introductory
elimination process: Ordering lujvo places.
ellipsis
quick-tour version: Some simple Lojban bridi
elliptical pro-bridi: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
elliptical pro-sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
elliptical sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
elliptical value
contrasted with typical value for sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
embarrassment
example: Emotional categories
embedded bridi tenses
effect of main bridi tense on: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
embedded discursive: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
emotional categories: Emotional categories
emotional indicators
noticeable effects of: Tentative conclusion
emotional scale: Attitudes as scales
emotions
compound: The space of emotions
cultural bias of expression: Tentative conclusion
insights: The space of emotions
recording using indicators: Tentative conclusion
research using indicators: Tentative conclusion
when expressed: The space of emotions
empathy: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
emphasis
changing by using non-standard form of bridi: Standard bridi form: cu
end of file: No more to say: FAhO
endpoints
inclusion in interval: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
engineering: Some simple Lojban bridi
English "we"
contrasted with Lojban pro-sumti for "we": Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
English prepositions
contrasted with modal tags in preciseness: Modal tags: BAI
Englishman in Africa: Individuals and masses
enough currency: Indefinite numbers
enough-th: Special mekso selbri
equivalents to brivla: Other kinds of simple selbri
erasure
multiple word: Erasure: SI, SA, SU
names: Erasure: SI, SA, SU
of quotations with "zo": Erasure: SI, SA, SU
quotes: Erasure: SI, SA, SU
total: Erasure: SI, SA, SU
word: Erasure: SI, SA, SU
error marking
metalinguistic: Miscellaneous indicators
ete: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
event abstractions: Event abstraction
types: Types of event abstractions
event contours
achievative: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
as characteristic portions of events: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
as timeless in perspective: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
cessative: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
completitive: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
continuitive: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
contrasted with tense direction in implication of extent: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
definition: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
division of the event into: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
implications on scope of event: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
inchoative: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
initiative: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
interruption: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
order with respect to TAhE and ROI: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
pausative: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
points associated with: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
resumption: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
resumptive: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
retrospective: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
strings of: Sub-events
superfective: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
syntax of: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
temporal contrasted with spatial: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
event contours as sumtcita
contrasted with direction and distance: Tenses as sumtcita
event types
described: Types of event abstractions
event-relative viewpoint
contrasted with speaker-relative viewpoint: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
events
considered as a process: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
duration: Event abstraction
place structure: Event abstraction
everybody loves something: Negation boundaries
everyone
contrasted with anyone in assumption of existence: The problem of “any”
everyone bitten by dog: Dropping the prenex
everything
expressing with "ro da": Universal claims
everything breathes: Restricted claims: da poi
everything loves everything: Universal claims
everything sees me: Universal claims
everything sees something: Universal claims
evidentials
"ba'a" scale: Evidentials
"ja'o" contrasted with "su'a": Evidentials
"ka'u" contrasted with "se'o": Evidentials
"se'o" contrasted with "ka'u": Evidentials
"su'a" contrasted with "ja'o": Evidentials
definition: Evidentials
grammar: Evidentials
in English: Evidentials
indisputable bridi: Evidentials
inspiration for: Evidentials
placement in bridi: Evidentials
quick-tour version: Indicators
rhetorical flavor: Evidentials
scales: Evidentials
exact number
expressing: Approximation and inexact numbers
example of examples: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
examples
structure of: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
examples in this book: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
except from 10 to 12: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
existential
mixed claim with universal: Universal claims
existential claims
definition: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
restricting: Restricted claims: da poi
existential variable
in abstraction contrasted with in main bridi: The problem of “any”
in main bridi contrasted with in abstraction: The problem of “any”
experience abstraction: Minor abstraction types
experience abstractions
place structure: Minor abstraction types
experience abstractor: Minor abstraction types
experienced: Evidentials
experimental cmavo
definition: cmavo
forms for: cmavo
exponential notation
with "gei": Infix operators revisited
with base other than 10: Infix operators revisited
exporting negation to prenex
"naku" contrasted with internal bridi negation: Using naku outside a prenex
internal bridi negation contrasted with "naku": Using naku outside a prenex
external bridi negation
compared to internal bridi negation: Negation boundaries
definition: Negation boundaries
extrinsic possession
definition: Relative phrases

F

F.8 base 16: Non-decimal and compound bases
FA tags and linked sumti: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
face
specifying for letters: Alien alphabets
false statement
implications of: Logical connection of bridi
far away from the nearby park: Tenses as sumtcita
fast talker: tanru
fast-talker shoe: tanru
father: The concept of the bridi
father mother: lujvo
fewsome: Special mekso selbri
Fido: Dropping the prenex
field rations: lujvo
figurative lujvo: Miscellaneous indicators
place structure: Miscellaneous indicators
figurative speech: Miscellaneous indicators
final syllable stress
rules for pause after: Rules for inserting pauses
finish
contrasted with stop: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
finished: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
first rat: Special mekso selbri
firstly: Other uses of mekso
fish eat: Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
fish on right: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
flashbacks in story time: Story time
fleas: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
flexible vocabulary: brivla
floating point numbers
expressing: Infix operators revisited
flow of discourse
managing with discursives: Discursives
folk quantifiers
expressing: Using Lojban resources within mekso
font: Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets, Alien alphabets
specifying for letters: Alien alphabets
food
use of fu'ivla for specific: fu'ivla
foreman of a jury
example: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
forethought bridi connection
as grammatically one sentence: Forethought bridi connection
forethought bridi connectives
contrasted with afterthought bridi connectives: Forethought bridi connection
forethought bridi-tail connection
special rule for tense: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
forethought connection
contrasted with afterthought for grammatical utterances: Truth questions and connective questions
definition: Other modal connections
in abstractions: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
in tenses: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
observatives: Multiple compound bridi
of operands: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
of operators: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
forethought connections
modal compared with tense in semantics: Tenses versus modals
forethought connectives
as ungrammatical utterance: Truth questions and connective questions
contrasted with afterthought connectives: Forethought bridi connection
with tense: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
forethought connectives and bo: Grouping of afterthought connectives
forethought intervals
GAhO position: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
forethought logical connectives
within tanru: Logical connection within tanru
forethought logical connectives in tanru
effect on tanru grouping: Logical connection within tanru
forethought modal sentence connection: Other modal connections
relation to modal of first bridi in: Other modal connections
relation to modal of second bridi in: Other modal connections
forethought modal sentence connection for causals
order of cause and effect: Other modal connections
forethought tanru connection: Logical connection within tanru
forethought tense connection
contrasted with afterthought in likeness to modal connection: Tenses versus modals
forethought tense connection of bridi-tails
order of: Tense relations between sentences
forethought tense connection of sentences
order of: Tense relations between sentences
forethought tense connection of sumti
order of: Tense relations between sentences
forethought termsets
logical connection of: Termset logical connection
formal requirement: Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales, Attitudes as scales
former market: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
former state: Comparatives and superlatives
formulae
expressing based on pure dimensions: Using Lojban resources within mekso
four "e"s: References to lerfu
Four score and seven: Four score and seven: a mekso problem
fourteen "e"s: What's a letteral, anyway?
fraction
meaning with elided numerator and denominator: Special numbers
fractions
expressing with numerical punctuation: Signs and numerical punctuation
numerator default: Signs and numerical punctuation
fragmentary text: Miscellaneous indicators
Frank is a fool: Predication/sentence abstraction, Predication/sentence abstraction
free modifiers
effects on elidability of terminators: Subscripts
friend's cup: Relative phrases
from one to two o'clock: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
fu'ivla
algorithm for constructing: fu'ivla
as a subtype of brivla: brivla
as Stage 3 borrowings: fu'ivla
as Stage 4 borrowings: fu'ivla
categorized contrasted with uncategorized in ease of construction: fu'ivla
considerations for choosing basis word: fu'ivla
consonant clusters in: fu'ivla
construction of: fu'ivla
definition
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
diphthongs in: fu'ivla
disambiguation of: fu'ivla
form for rafsi fu'ivla proposal: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
form of: fu'ivla
initial consonant cluster in: fu'ivla
method of including in lujvo: rafsi
quick-tour version: Examples of brivla
rules for formation of: fu'ivla
stress in: fu'ivla
uniqueness of meaning in: fu'ivla
use of: fu'ivla
with invalid diphthongs: fu'ivla
fu'ivla categorizer: fu'ivla
for distinguishing fu'ivla form: fu'ivla
for distinguishing specialized meanings: fu'ivla
selection consideration for: fu'ivla
fully reduced lujvo
definition: rafsi
function f of x: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
function name
lerfu string as: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
future event
possible extension into present: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
futureward
as a spatial tense: Dimensionality: VIhA
fuzzy logic and truth-value abstraction: Truth-value abstraction: jei

G

gadri
definition: The five kinds of simple sumti
gek
definition: Forethought bridi connection
gek bridi connectives
contrasted with ijeks: Forethought bridi connection
geks
connecting operands: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
in forethought sumti connection: sumti connection
syntax of: Forethought bridi connection
General American: IPA for English speakers
general sumti
contrasted with operands: Simple infix expressions and equations
general terms: Notes on gismu place structures
German rich man: Grouping of afterthought connectives
Gettysburg Address: Four score and seven: a mekso problem
gihek
definition: Compound bridi
giheks
syntax of: Compound bridi
gik
as name for compound cmavo: The six types of logical connectives
definition: Forethought bridi connection
giks
syntax of: Forethought bridi connection
girls' school
little: Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo, Three-part tanru grouping with bo
gismu
algorithm for: lujvo-making examples
and cmavo
major: gismu
as a subtype of brivla: brivla
as partitioning semantic space: gismu
basic rafsi for: rafsi
coined: The gismu creation algorithm
conflicts between: gismu
creation
and transcription blunders: The gismu creation algorithm
considerations for selection after scoring: The gismu creation algorithm
proscribed gismu pairs: The gismu creation algorithm
scoring rules: The gismu creation algorithm
cultural: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
definition: gismu
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
ethnic: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
examples of: gismu
exceptions to gismu creation by algorithm: The gismu creation algorithm
for countries: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
for languages: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
for Lojban source languages: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
geographical: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
length of: gismu
level of uniqueness of rafsi relating to: rafsi
Lojban-specific: The gismu creation algorithm
place order
rationale: Notes on gismu place structures
place structures: Notes on gismu place structures
rationale: Notes on gismu place structures
quick-tour version: Examples of brivla
rationale for choice of: gismu
religious: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
rules for: gismu
scientific-mathematical: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
selection of: gismu
source of: gismu
source-language weights for: The gismu creation algorithm
special: gismu
too-similar: The gismu creation algorithm
give: The concept of the bridi, The concept of the bridi, The concept of the bridi
give or receive: Tagging places: FA
giving the horse: Property abstractions
glottal stop
as pause in Lojban: The special Lojban characters
glue in lujvo
n-hyphen as: lujvo
r-hyphen as: lujvo
y-hyphen as: lujvo
go: Standard bridi form: cu
go to Boston from Atlanta: Standard bridi form: cu
go to market: Introductory
go to Paris or Rome: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
go to the store: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
go-er: Conversion: SE
goal of this book: What is this book?
goer table: Simple tanru
goer-house
example: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
good house: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
grammatical categories
use of upper case for: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
grammatical terms
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
grasp water: Other modal connections
great soldier: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo, Ordering lujvo places.
Greek alphabet
language shift word for: Alien alphabets
Greek aorist tense
compared with Lojban tense: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
Greek-Americans own restaurants: Descriptors for typical objects
grouping
of connection in abstractions: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
of connection in tenses: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
grouping parentheses: Complex tanru with ke and ke'e
guhek
definition: Logical connection within tanru
guheks
connecting operators: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
syntax of: Logical connection within tanru
guheks for tanru connection
rationale: Logical connection within tanru

H

had earlier: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
hands in pockets: Relative phrases
handwriting: Alien alphabets
hanzi: What about Chinese characters?
happiness: Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u
happy face
example: The universal bu
has a heart: Property abstractions
have never: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
having
of properties: Property abstractions
healthy: Questions, Questions, Questions, Questions, Questions
hearsay
example: Evidentials
heartburn
example: Miscellaneous indicators
Hebrew alphabet
language shift word for: Alien alphabets
Helvetica font: Alien alphabets
hepatitis: rafsi, rafsi
hereafter known as
example: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
hesitation sound: Hesitation: Y
hexadecimal system
specifying numbers in (see also base): Non-decimal and compound bases
hierarchy of priorities for selecting lujvo form: The lujvo scoring algorithm
hiragana: Alien alphabets
contrasted with kanji: What about Chinese characters?
hit cousin: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
hit nose: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
hits: The concept of the bridi
Hollywood: Descriptors for typical objects
hospitality
example: Vocative scales
hours
example of timestamp: Non-decimal and compound bases
huh?: Miscellaneous indicators
hundred
expressing as number: Lojban numbers
husband and wife: Evidentials
hyphen letter
definition: rafsi
hyphens
use of: rafsi
hyphens in lujvo
proscribed where not required: The lujvo-making algorithm
hypothetical world: Propositional attitude indicators
contrasted with real world
example: Discursives
hypothetical world point of view: Discursives

I

IBM: Acronyms
ICAO Phonetic Alphabet
proposed lerfu words for: Proposed lerfu words for radio communication
idea abstraction: Minor abstraction types
idea abstractions
place structure: Minor abstraction types
identity
expressing with "po'u": Relative phrases
identity predicate: The identity predicate: du
if
English usage contrasted with Lojban logical connective: Logical connection of bridi
expressing hypothetical world: Discursives
expressing real world: Discursives
meaning in logical connections: Logical connection of bridi
if coffee
bring tea: Truth questions and connective questions
if … then
compared with English "only if": Logical connection of bridi
logical connectives contrasted with other translations: Forethought bridi connection
ijek
definition: The six types of logical connectives
ijek bridi connectives
contrasted with geks: Forethought bridi connection
ijek logical connectives
connecting bridi: Logical connection of bridi
ijeks
syntax of: Logical connection of bridi
ijoik
as name for compound cmavo: The six types of logical connectives
definition: More about non-logical connectives
imaginary journey
and spatial tense: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
ending point: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
origin in tense forethought bridi-tail connection: Tense relations between sentences
origin in tense forethought sentence connection: Tense relations between sentences
origin in tense forethought sumti connection: Tense relations between sentences
origin of in tense-connected sentences: Tense relations between sentences
stages of in compound tenses: Compound spatial tenses
starting at a different point: Tenses as sumtcita
starting point: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA, Tenses as sumtcita
with interval direction: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
imaginary journey origin
with sticky tenses: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
imperatives
and truth: Truth questions and connective questions
attitude: Attitudinal modifiers
English contrasted with Lojban in presence of subject of command: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
quick-tour version: Vocatives and commands
with "ko": Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
implausible: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
implicit quantifier
for quotations: Quantified sumti
on quotations
discussion of: Quantified sumti
importance of point
scale with "ra'u": Discursives
in the aftermath: Tenses as sumtcita
inalienable
distinguishing from alienable: Relative phrases
inalienable possession
definition: Relative phrases
expressing with "po'e": Relative phrases
inchoative event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
incidental association
expressing with "ne": Relative phrases
incidental identification
expressing with "no'u": Relative phrases
incidental relative clause
as a parenthetical device: Incidental relative clauses
definition: Incidental relative clauses
inclusion
property of sets: Masses and sets
indefinite description
as needing explicit outer quantifier: Indefinite descriptions
as prohibiting explicit inner quantifier: Indefinite descriptions
compared with restricted variable: Variables with generalized quantifiers
definition: Indefinite descriptions, Variables with generalized quantifiers
indefinite numbers
combined with definite: Indefinite numbers
indefinite portions
subjective: Indefinite numbers
indefinite pro-bridi: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
indefinite pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary, Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
implicit quantifier for: Pro-sumti summary
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
indefinite sumti
as implicit quantification: Using naku outside a prenex
compared to sumti with "lo": Grouping of quantifiers
meaning when multiple in sentence: Grouping of quantifiers
multiple in sentence: Grouping of quantifiers
indefinite values
subjective: Indefinite numbers
indicator scope: Paragraphs: NIhO
indicators: What are attitudinal indicators?
evolutionary development of: Tentative conclusion
grammar for compounding: Compound indicators
meaning when compounded: Compound indicators
placement of: Propositional attitude indicators
quick-tour version: Indicators
ramifications: Tentative conclusion
rationale for selection: Tentative conclusion
scope effect of new paragraph: Paragraphs: NIhO
types of: What are attitudinal indicators?
indirect question: Miscellaneous indicators
indirect question involving sumti: Indirect questions
indirect questions
"ma kau" contrasted with "la .djan. kau": Indirect questions
indirect questions without "kau": Indirect questions
indisputable bridi: Evidentials
individual: Special mekso selbri
individual descriptors
different implicit outer quantifiers among: Quantified descriptions
individual objects
multiple: Individuals and masses
individuals
expressing relation with mass formed: Special mekso selbri
expressing relation with set formed: Special mekso selbri
individuals into mass
by non-logical connection: Non-logical connectives
individuals into set
by non-logical connection: Non-logical connectives
individuals of set
expressing measurement standard for indefinites: Special mekso selbri
indivisible: Types of event abstractions
induction
example: Evidentials
inexact numbers with bounds: Approximation and inexact numbers
inexact portions with bounds: Approximation and inexact numbers
infant ducks: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
inferior: Attitudinal modifiers
infinity: Special numbers
infix notation mixed with Polish: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
example: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
inflammable: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
initial consonant pairs
list of: Initial consonant pairs
initiative event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
innate capabilities
expressing implicitly: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
innate capability
expressing explicitly: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
innate properties
extension of from mass to individuals: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
extension to individuals not actually capable: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
inner product: Vectors and matrices
inner quantifier
contrasted with outer quantifier: Quantified descriptions
definition: Quantified descriptions
effect of on meaning: Quantified descriptions
explicit: Quantified descriptions
implicit on descriptors: Quantified descriptions
in indefinite description: Indefinite descriptions
inner sumti
referring to from within relative clause within relative clause: Relative clauses within relative clauses
integral
architectural concept
example: fu'ivla
mathematical concept
example: fu'ivla
interactions between quantifiers and negation
effect: Negation boundaries
interjections
quick-tour version: Indicators
intermediate abstraction: Lojban sumti raising
intermittently: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
internal bridi negation
compared to external bridi negation: Negation boundaries
definition: Negation boundaries
internal naku negations
and DeMorgan's Law: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
internal world: Propositional attitude indicators
International Phonetic Alphabet (see also IPA): Basic phonetics
intersect: Minor abstraction types
intersection
of sets: More about non-logical connectives
intersection of sets
compared with English "and": More about non-logical connectives
interval
closed: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
followed by direction in tense construct: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
inclusion of endpoints: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
open: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
relation to point specified by direction and distance: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
relative order with direction and distance in tense: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
specifying relation to point specified by direction and distance: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
interval continuousness
meaning as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
interval direction
specifying: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
interval properties
meaning as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
strings of: Sub-events
interval size
as context-dependent: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
meaning as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
unspecified: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
vague: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
interval spread
expressing English "intermittently": Interval properties: TAhE and roi
mutually contrasted: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
negation with "nai": Interval properties: TAhE and roi
with unspecified interval: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
intervals
effect of "nai" on: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
expressed as center and distance: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
expressed as endpoints: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
expressing by endpoints with "bi'o": Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
forethought: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
spread of actions over: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
intrinsic possession
definition: Relative phrases
expressing by using place in some selbri: Relative phrases
expressing with "po'e": Relative phrases
introduce oneself: Vocative scales
invalid diphthongs
in fu'ivla: fu'ivla
invalid speech
marking as error with "na'i": Miscellaneous indicators
inversion of quantifiers
definition: Negation boundaries
in moving negation boundary: Negation boundaries
inversion of quantifiers on passing negation boundary
rationale for: Negation boundaries
invertebrate: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
inverted tanru
effect on sumti after the selbri: Inversion of tanru: co
effect on sumti before the selbri: Inversion of tanru: co
inverting quantifiers
with movement relative to "naku": Using naku outside a prenex
with movement relative to fixed negation: Using naku outside a prenex
IPA: Basic phonetics
IPA pronunciation
description: IPA for English speakers
irony
example: Discursives
expressing: Discursives
irrational number: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
irrelevant
specifying of sumti place: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
isomorphism
audio-visual: Orthography
IT
as notation convention in relative clause chapter: What are you pointing at?
italic
example: Alien alphabets
iy diphthong
in cmevla: cmevla

J

j-sound in English
representation in Lojban: Basic phonetics
James: Consonant clusters
Jane: cmevla
Japanese hiragana: Alien alphabets
Japanese katakana: Alien alphabets
jargon
use of fu'ivla for: fu'ivla
jek
definition: The six types of logical connectives
jeks
connecting abstractors: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
connecting operators: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
syntax of: Logical connection within tanru
Jesus: Minor abstraction types, Minor abstraction types
Jim: cmevla
John and Sam: The concept of the bridi, The concept of the bridi, The concept of the bridi
John Brown: cmevla, cmevla
John is coming: What are attitudinal indicators?, What are attitudinal indicators?, What are attitudinal indicators?, What are attitudinal indicators?, What are attitudinal indicators?
John Paul Jones: Lojban names
John says that George goes to market: Tenses in subordinate bridi
joigik
as name for compound cmavo: The six types of logical connectives
definition: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
joigiks
connection types: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
syntax of: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
joik
as name for compound cmavo: The six types of logical connectives
definition: Non-logical connectives
joiks
effect of "nai" on: More about non-logical connectives
grouping: More about non-logical connectives
syntax of: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
use of "se" in: Non-logical connectives
jokes: What is this book?
Jupiter life: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
juror number 5: Possessive sumti

K

kanji
contrasted with alphabets and syllabaries: What about Chinese characters?
representing based on romaji spelling: What about Chinese characters?
representing based on strokes: What about Chinese characters?
katakana: Alien alphabets
Kate: cmevla
Katrina: cmevla
kept on too long: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
killing Jim: Types of event abstractions, Types of event abstractions
kissing Jane: Event abstraction
know: Predication/sentence abstraction
know who: Indirect questions
contrasted with know that: Indirect questions
knowledge discursives: Discursives
compared with propositional attitudes: Discursives
Korean: fu'ivla, fu'ivla
Kzinti
communication with: Tentative conclusion

L

l-hyphen
use of: fu'ivla
Láadan evidentials: Evidentials
Lady: cmevla
lambda calculus
operator and operand distinction in: Miscellany
language shift
based on name + "bu": Alien alphabets
choice of Lojban-lerfu-word counterpart: Alien alphabets
compound: Alien alphabets
effect on following words: Alien alphabets
formation of shift alphabet name: Alien alphabets
interaction with "bu": Alien alphabets
rationale for: Alien alphabets
standardization of: Alien alphabets
large meal: Attitudinal modifiers
large-base decimal fraction
expressing: Non-decimal and compound bases
latent component: Anomalous lujvo
Latin
alphabet of Lojban: What's a letteral, anyway?
Latin alphabet: Orthography
language shift word for: Alien alphabets
learning Lojban
magnitude of task: gismu
left-grouping rule
definition of: Three-part tanru grouping with bo
legal jargon
example: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
legal system: Truth-value abstraction: jei
lemon tree: Simple tanru
Length × Width × Depth = Volume: Using Lojban resources within mekso
Lepidoptera: tanru
lerfu
as assignable pro-sumti: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
contrasted with lerfu word: What's a letteral, anyway?
definition: What's a letteral, anyway?
reference to: References to lerfu
referring to with "me'o": References to lerfu
lerfu as pro-sumti
contrasted with ko'a-series in explicit assignment of: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
explicit assignment of antecedent: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
implicit assignment of antecedent: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
lerfu juxtaposition interpretation
contrasted with mathematical interpretation: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
lerfu shift scope
exception for mathematical texts: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
lerfu string
as function name: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
as mathematical variable: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
as pro-sumti: lerfu words as pro-sumti
assumption of reference: lerfu words as pro-sumti
as pro-sumti assigned by "goi": lerfu words as pro-sumti
as quantifier: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
as selbri: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
as subscript: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
as utterance ordinal: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
definition: lerfu words as pro-sumti
interpretation
contrasted with mathematical interpretation: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
lerfu strings
as acronyms using "me": Acronyms
as pro-sumti
for multiple sumti separated by boi: lerfu words as pro-sumti
as quantifiers
avoiding interaction with sumti quantified: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
in mathematical expressions: Simple infix expressions and equations
interpretation of contrasted with normal mathematical interpretation: Simple infix expressions and equations
uses in mathematics: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
with numerical selbri: Special mekso selbri
lerfu word
contrasted with lerfu: What's a letteral, anyway?
for "'": A to Z in Lojban, plus one
lerfu word cmavo
list of auxiliary: List of all auxiliary lerfu-word cmavo
lerfu word set extension
with bu: The universal bu
lerfu words
as a basis for acronym names: Acronyms
composed of compound cmavo: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
composed of single cmavo: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
consonant words contrasted with vowel words: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
effect of systematic formulation: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
for consonants: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
for vowels: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
formation rules: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
forming new for non-Lojban letters using "bu": Accent marks and compound lerfu words
list of proposed
notation convention: Proposed lerfu words – introduction
Lojban coverage requirement: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
proposed for accent marks: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
proposed for Cyrillic alphabet: Proposed lerfu words for the Cyrillic alphabet
proposed for diacritic marks: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
proposed for multiple letters: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
proposed for noisy environments: Proposed lerfu words for radio communication
proposed for radio communication: Proposed lerfu words for radio communication
table of Lojban: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
using computer encoding schemes with "se'e": Computerized character codes
vowel words contrasted with consonant words: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
lerfu words ending with "y"
pause after
rationale: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
lerfu words for vowels
pause requirement before: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
lerfu words with numeric digits
grammar considerations: What about Chinese characters?
lervla
contrasted with lerfu: What's a letteral, anyway?
less
English word "less"
expressing with relative phrases: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
importance of relative phrase to: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
less than: Approximation and inexact numbers
contrasted with more than
at least, at most: Approximation and inexact numbers
less than two: Approximation and inexact numbers
letter
alphabet: What's a letteral, anyway?
contrasted with word for the letter: What's a letteral, anyway?
letter encoding schemes
application to lerfu words: Computerized character codes
letteral
definition: What's a letteral, anyway?
letters
non-Lojban
representation of diacritical marks on: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
representation with consonant-word + bu: Alien alphabets
representation with consonant-word + bu, drawback: Alien alphabets
representation with language-shift: Alien alphabets
representation with names: Alien alphabets
sound contrasted with symbol for spelling: Alien alphabets
symbol contrasted with sound for spelling: Alien alphabets
likes more than: Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison, Modal relative phrases; Comparison
lined up: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
linguistic behavior: Predication/sentence abstraction
linguistic drift: What is this book?
linguistic drift in Lojban
possible source of: Considerations for making lujvo
linked arguments: Questions and answers
linked sumti
definition: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
in tanru: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
linked sumti and FA tags: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
linked sumti and sumtcita: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
Linnaean names
rules for: cmevla
lion in Africa: Descriptors for typical objects
lions in Africa: Individuals and masses
list: Non-logical connectives
as a physical object: Non-logical connectives
contrasted with sequence: Non-logical connectives
list of things to do: More about non-logical connectives
listen attentively: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
lists
use of "tu'e"/"tu'u" in: More about non-logical connectives
literally: Miscellaneous indicators
living things: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
Livingston: Evidentials
LLG: Acknowledgements and credits
logic
and attitudinals: What's wrong with this picture?
limits of: What's wrong with this picture?
resolving ambiguities of "nobody": What's wrong with this picture?
logic and Lojban
more aspects: Conclusion
logical connection
effect on elidability of "lo'o": Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
grouping strategies for complex cases contrasted: Grouping of afterthought connectives
in abstractions
inner bridi contrasted with outer bridi: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
in mathematical expressions: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
in tanru
contrasted with unconnected version: Logical connection within tanru
expandability of: Logical connection within tanru
grouping with bo: Logical connection within tanru
grouping with ke: Logical connection within tanru
inside abstractions
contrasted with outside: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
interaction with tenses: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
negation in connecting more than 2 sentences: More than two propositions
of bridi-tail as opposed to tanru: Logical connection within tanru
of bridi-tails
forethought: Multiple compound bridi
restriction on ke: Multiple compound bridi
of forethought termsets: Termset logical connection
of modals: Logical and non-logical connection of modals
of more than 2 sentences
all or none: More than two propositions
forethought: More than two propositions
things to avoid: More than two propositions
of observatives
relation of first places: Compound bridi
of selbri: Compound bridi
of sumti
grouping with parentheses: Grouping of afterthought connectives
restriction on ke: Grouping of afterthought connectives
of tanru
caveat: Logical connection within tanru
of tanru as opposed to bridi-tail: Logical connection within tanru
termsets: Termset logical connection
transformation between forms: sumti connection
with "bo"
precedence: Grouping of afterthought connectives
logical connection of abstractors: Abstractor connection and connection within abstractions
logical connection of more than 2 sentences
mixed "and" and "or": More than two propositions
logical connectives: Logical connection and truth tables
associative: More than two propositions
bridi-tail connection: Compound bridi
cmavo
format for each selma'o: The six types of logical connectives
effect on elidability of "ge'u" from preceding relative phrase: Relative phrases
equivalence relation on 3 sentences: More than two propositions
grouping with "bo": Grouping of afterthought connectives
in tanru: Logical connection within tanru
more than 2 sentences: More than two propositions
negated first sentence as a potential problem for understanding: Forethought bridi connection
non-associative: More than two propositions
observative sentence connection: Compound bridi
pairing from left: More than two propositions
rationale for multiple sets in grammar: The six types of logical connectives
recipes
simplified for logic chapter discussion: bridi negation and logical connectives
relation to truth functions: The four basic vowels
relative precedence with "me'u": selbri based on sumti: me
right-grouping with bo: Grouping of afterthought connectives
selma'o
enumerated: The six types of logical connectives
syntax rules summary: Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives
table by truth function value: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
tensed: Tensed logical connectives
logical connectives and bridi negation: bridi negation and logical connectives
logical connectives and negation
caveat for logic chapter discussions: bridi negation and logical connectives
logical connectives in tanru: Logical connection within tanru
ambiguity of: Logical connection within tanru
effect on formal logical manipulations: Logical connection within tanru
effect on tanru grouping: Logical connection within tanru
usefulness of: Logical connection within tanru
logical connectives within negation
effects of expansion on: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
logical language
truth functions: Logical connection and truth tables
Logical Language Group
example: lujvo-making examples
relation to Lojban: What is Lojban?
logical variables
creating more by subscripting: A few notes on variables
effect of global substitution: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
effect of order in prenex: Universal claims
effect of using multiple different: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
explicitly placing in outer prenex: The problem of “any”
for selbri: selbri variables
implicit placement in smallest enclosing bridi prenex: The problem of “any”
notation convention: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
when not in main bridi: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
with "poi"
in multiple appearances: Dropping the prenex
with "ro"
in multiple appearances: Dropping the prenex
with multiple appearances in bridi: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
logically connected sentences
and DeMorgan's Law: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
logically connected tenses
definition: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
expansion to sentences: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
with JA: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
Loglan: Informal bibliography
logograms
words for: The universal bu
Lojban
features of: What is Lojban?
history of: What is Lojban?
stability of: What is this book?
Lojban alphabet: Orthography
Lojban letters
IPA for pronouncing: Basic phonetics
list with IPA pronunciation: Basic phonetics
Lojbanistan: What is this book?
long ago and far away: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
long rafsi
definition: rafsi
long rafsi form
compared with short form in effect on lujvo meaning: lujvo
long-sword: lujvo with more than two parts.
loose association
expressing with "pe": Relative phrases
Lord: cmevla
love more: Property abstractions
lower case letters
use in Lojban: Upper and lower cases
lower-case
lerfu word for: Upper and lower cases
lower-case letters
English usage contrasted with Lojban: Upper and lower cases
Lojban usage contrasted with English: Upper and lower cases
lower-case word
effect on following lerfu words: Upper and lower cases
lujvo
"zi'o" rafsi effect on place structure of: lujvo based on pro-sumti
abbreviated: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
abstract: Abstract lujvo
algorithm for: The lujvo-making algorithm
and consonant pairs: rafsi
and plausibility: Considerations for making lujvo
and seltau/tertau relationship: The meaning of lujvo
and the listener: Considerations for making lujvo
as a subtype of brivla: brivla
as suppliers of agent place: Notes on gismu place structures
asymmetrical: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
based on multiple tanru: Considerations for making lujvo
cmavo incorporation: Why have lujvo?
comparatives: Comparatives and superlatives
compared with tanru: Why have lujvo?
consideration in choosing meaning for: Considerations for making lujvo
considerations for retaining elements of: Considerations for making lujvo
construction of: lujvo
definition
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
design consideration for relationship: The meaning of lujvo
dropping elements of: Considerations for making lujvo
dropping SE rafsi: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
examples of making: The lujvo scoring algorithm
from cmavo with no rafsi: rafsi
from tanru: lujvo
fully reduced: rafsi
guidelines for place structure: Why have lujvo?
interpreting: The meaning of lujvo
invention of: lujvo
meaning drift of: Considerations for making lujvo
meaning of: lujvo
multiple forms of: lujvo
place structure of figurative lujvo: Miscellaneous indicators
pro-sumti rafsi effect on place structure of: lujvo based on pro-sumti
quick-tour version: Examples of brivla
rationale for: Why have lujvo?
recognizing: rafsi
rules for formation of: lujvo
scored examples of: The lujvo scoring algorithm
scoring of: The lujvo-making algorithm
selection of best form of: The lujvo-making algorithm
shorter for more general concepts: Considerations for making lujvo
summary of form characteristics: rafsi
superlatives: Comparatives and superlatives
symmetrical: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
ultimate guideline for choice of meaning/place-structure: Considerations for making lujvo
unambiguity of: Considerations for making lujvo
unambiguous decomposition of: lujvo
unreduced: rafsi
unsuitability of for concrete/specific terms and jargon: fu'ivla
with zei: rafsi
lujvo creation
interaction of KE with NAhE: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
interaction of KE with SE: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
use of multiple SE in: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
lujvo form
consonant cluster requirement in: rafsi
final letter of: rafsi
hierarchy of priorities for selection of: The lujvo scoring algorithm
number of letters in: rafsi
requirements for hyphen insertion in: rafsi
requirements for n-hyphen insertion in: rafsi
requirements for r-hyphen insertion in: rafsi
requirements for y-hyphen insertion in: rafsi
lujvo place order: Ordering lujvo places.
asymmetrical lujvo: Ordering lujvo places.
based on 3-or-more part veljvo: lujvo with more than two parts.
comparatives: Comparatives and superlatives
rationale for standardization: Ordering lujvo places.
superlatives: Comparatives and superlatives
superlatives as exceptions: Comparatives and superlatives
symmetrical lujvo: Ordering lujvo places.
lujvo place structure
"ni" lujvo: Abstract lujvo
"nu" lujvo: Abstract lujvo
basis of: Selecting places
comparative lujvo: Comparatives and superlatives
cross-dependent places: Dependent places
dependent places: Dependent places
dropping "KE": Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
dropping "KEhE": Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
dropping cross-dependent places: Dependent places
dropping dependent places
caveat: Dependent places
dropping dependent seltau places: Dependent places
dropping dependent tertau places: Dependent places
dropping redundant places: The meaning of lujvo
effect of "SE": Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
effect of "SE"-dropping in tertau: Eliding SE rafsi from tertau
explicated walk-through: The meaning of lujvo
guidelines: Why have lujvo?
multi-place abstraction lujvo: Abstract lujvo
notation conventions: The meaning of lujvo
rationale for standardization: Selecting places
selecting tertau: Dependent places
superlatives: Comparatives and superlatives
when first place redundant with non-first: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
when first places redundant: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
when first places redundant plus others: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
lukewarm food: sumti qualifiers

M

magic square: Vectors and matrices
male sexual teacher
example: lujvo-making examples
man biting dog: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
man or woman: Logical connection and truth tables
man-woman: Logical connection within tanru
manhole: Compound spatial tenses
manysome: Special mekso selbri
maple sugar: fu'ivla
maple trees: fu'ivla
marathon: Types of event abstractions
Mars road
example: Conversion: SE
mass
compared with set as abstract of multiple individuals: Masses and sets
contrasted with ordered sequence: Non-logical connectives
contrasted with set in attribution of component properties: Masses and sets
contrasted with set in distribution of properties: Non-logical connectives
expressing measurement standard for indefinites: Special mekso selbri
expressing relation with individuals forming: Special mekso selbri
expressing relation with set forming: Special mekso selbri
joining elements into a mass: Non-logical connectives
mass contrasted with components
in properties of: Non-logical connectives
mass name
use of: Individuals and masses
mass object
and logical reasoning: Individuals and masses
as dependent on intention: Individuals and masses
contrasted with multiple individual objects: Individuals and masses
properties of: Individuals and masses
mass objects
peculiarities of English translation of: Individuals and masses
masses
rule for implicit outer quantifier: Quantified descriptions
mathematical equality
expressing: Simple infix expressions and equations
mathematical expression
referring to: Other uses of mekso
mathematical expressions
connectives in: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
implicit quantifier for: Number summary
tensed connection in: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
mathematical expressions in tanru: Other kinds of simple selbri
mathematical intervals: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
mathematical notation
and omitted operators: Introductory
and operator precedence: Simple infix expressions and equations
infix: Simple infix expressions and equations
international uniqueness of: Introductory
mathematical operators: Simple infix expressions and equations
mathematical texts
effect on lerfu shift scope: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
mathematical variables
lerfu strings as: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
mathematics
use of lerfu strings in: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
matrices
use as operands: Vectors and matrices
use of parentheses with: Vectors and matrices
matrix
as combination of vectors: Vectors and matrices
definition: Vectors and matrices
with "ge'a" for more than 2 rows/columns: Vectors and matrices
with more than 2 dimensions: Vectors and matrices
matrix column operator: Vectors and matrices
matrix row operator: Vectors and matrices
Mayan mathematics
as a system with base larger than 16: Non-decimal and compound bases
measurements
expressing: Simple infix expressions and equations
meat slice: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
medieval weapon: lujvo with more than two parts.
mei
place structure formed for objective indefinites: Special mekso selbri
mekso
and literary translation: Four score and seven: a mekso problem
complex used as quantifier: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
design goals: Introductory
mekso chapter
completeness: Introductory
table notation convention: Introductory
mekso goal
coverage: Introductory
expandable: Introductory
for common use: Introductory
for mathematical writing: Introductory
precision: Introductory
unambiguous: Introductory
mekso goals
and ambiguity: Introductory
and non-mathematical expression: Introductory
mathematical notation form: Introductory
melting: Notes on gismu place structures
membership
property of sets: Masses and sets
mental activity: Predication/sentence abstraction
mental discomfort
example: Emotional categories
metalinguistic comment
with embedded discursive: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
metalinguistic levels: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
metalinguistic levels or reference: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
metalinguistic pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary
implicit quantifier for: Pro-sumti summary
metalinguistic words
quick-tour version: Indicators
mice: Minor abstraction types
minutes
example of timestamp: Non-decimal and compound bases
misinterpretation: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
Mitsubishi: What about Chinese characters?
mixed claim
definition: Universal claims
mixed modal connection
afterthought: Mixed modal connection
as proscribed in forethought: Mixed modal connection
definition: Mixed modal connection
of bridi-tails: Mixed modal connection
of sentences: Mixed modal connection
of sumti: Mixed modal connection
mixed with: Non-logical connectives
modal bridi-tail connection: Other modal connections
modal causals
implication differences: Modal sentence connection: the causals
modal cmavo
basis in gismu place structure: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
position relative to selbri: Tenses and bridi negation
regular form for derivation: CV'V cmavo of selma'o BAI with irregular forms
table with English equivalents: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
modal cmavo table
format of: Complete table of BAI cmavo with rough English equivalents
modal connection
simultaneous with logical: Mixed modal connection
modal connection of selbri
using bridi-tail modal connection: Other modal connections
modal connectives
fi'o prohibited in: Other modal connections
modal conversion
access to original first place with fai: Modal conversion: JAI
grammar of: Modal conversion: JAI
place structure of: Modal conversion: JAI
with no modal specified: Modal conversion: JAI
modal conversion with fi'o: Modal conversion: JAI
modal conversion without modal
as vague: Modal conversion: JAI
modal conversions
in descriptions: Modal conversion: JAI
modal followed by selbri
compared with tanru modification in meaning: Modal selbri
contrasted with tanru modification in grammar: Modal selbri
effect on eliding cu: Modal selbri
modal operand connection: Other modal connections
modal place
definition: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
on description selbri: Modal tags: BAI
rationale for term name: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
relation of to selbri: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
modal place relation
importance of first place in: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
modal sentence connection: Modal sentence connection: the causals
condensing: Other modal connections
effect on modal: Modal sentence connection: the causals
forethought: Other modal connections
relation to modal of first sentence in: Modal sentence connection: the causals
relation to modal of second sentence in: Modal sentence connection: the causals
table of equivalent schemata: Tenses versus modals
with other than causals: Modal sentence connection: the causals
modal sumti
and FA marking: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
as first place of modal tag selbri: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
definition (see also seltcita sumti): Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
effect on place structure: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
leaving vague: Modal selbri
position in bridi: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
unspecified: Modal selbri
modal sumti connection: Other modal connections
modal tag
definition (see also sumtcita): Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
fi'o with selbri as: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
for vague relationship: Modal tags: BAI
modal tags
contrasted with English prepositions in preciseness: Modal tags: BAI
short forms as BAI cmavo: Modal tags: BAI
modal tags and sumtcita: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
modal-or-tense question
with "cu'e": Tense questions: cu'e
modal-or-tense questions
pre-specifying some information: Tense questions: cu'e
modals
compared with tenses in syntax: Tenses versus modals
contradictory negation of: Modal negation
contrasted with tenses in semantics: Tenses versus modals
expanding scope over inner modal connection: Modal selbri
expanding scope over logical connection with ke ... ke'e: Modal selbri
expanding scope over multiple sentences with tu'e…tu'u: Modal selbri
expanding scope over non-logical connection: Modal selbri
for causal gismu: Modal sentence connection: the causals
importance of 1st sumti place for sumtcita use: Tenses versus modals
improving relative phrase preciseness with : Modal relative phrases; Comparison
making long-scope: Sticky modals
making sticky: Sticky modals
negation of: Modal negation
scalar negation of: Modal negation
termset connection: Other modal connections
modals often attached with relative phrases
list: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
modifier
seltau as: Simple tanru
modifying brivla (see also seltau): lujvo
Mon Repos: Dependent places
more
English word "more"
expressing with relative phrases: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
importance of relative phrase to: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
more than: Approximation and inexact numbers
contrasted with less than
at least, at most: Approximation and inexact numbers
more than two: Approximation and inexact numbers
morphology
conventions for: Introductory
definition: Introductory
derivational: Introductory
simplicity of: Introductory
symbolic conventions for discussing: Introductory
mother father: lujvo
movement
order in tense constructs: Movement in space: MOhI
time: Movement in space: MOhI
with multiple directions: Movement in space: MOhI
movement specification
interaction with direction in tenses: Movement in space: MOhI
movie
example of going to
office: example: Tagging places: FA
multiple "ma"
as multiple questions: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
multiple "mo"
as multiple questions: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
multiple compound bridi
restriction on "ke": Multiple compound bridi
multiple conversion
avoiding: Conversion: SE
effect of ordering: Conversion: SE
multiple indefinite sumti
effect of re-ordering in sentence: Grouping of quantifiers
expressing with equal scope: Grouping of quantifiers
meaning: Grouping of quantifiers
multiple indefinite sumti scope
in termset: Grouping of quantifiers
multiple indicators: The uses of indicators
multiple individual objects
contrasted with mass object: Individuals and masses
meaning of: Individuals and masses
multiple letters
proposed lerfu words for: Proposed lerfu words for some accent marks and multiple letters
multiple logical connectives
within tanru: Logical connection within tanru
multiple quantification
effect on selbri placement among sumti: Using naku outside a prenex
multiple questions in one bridi
expressing: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
multiple relative clauses
attaching with "zi'e": Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
connecting different kinds with "zi'e": Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
multiple speakers: Erasure: SI, SA, SU
multiple sumti in one place
avoiding: Tagging places: FA
multiple tanru inversion
effect on grouping: Inversion of tanru: co
multiple tenses
effect of order in sentence: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
my: Possessive sumti
my chair: Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
myth
example: Evidentials

N

n people: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
n-hyphen
contrasted with r-hyphen in requirements for use: rafsi
use of: lujvo, rafsi
nai
effect on intervals: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
name equivalent for typical
rationale for lack of: Descriptors for typical objects
name words
recognition of: Lojban names
name-words
permissible consonant combinations: Lojban names
names
algorithm for: cmevla
as possessive sumti: Possessive sumti
assigning with "goi": Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
authority for: cmevla
borrowing from other languages: Lojban names
examples of: cmevla
from Lojban words: cmevla
in vocative phrase: Lojban names
multiple: Lojban names
pause requirement in lerfu words: The universal bu
purpose of: cmevla
quick-tour version: Words that can act as sumti
rationale for lojbanizing: cmevla
rules for: cmevla
rules for formation: cmevla
stress in: cmevla, cmevla
two kinds of: Lojban names
unusual stress in: cmevla
uses of: Lojban names
using rafsi: Lojban names
with LA descriptor: Lojban names
names from vowel-final base
commonly used consonant endings: Lojban names
names in Lojban (see also cmevla): cmevla
names with la
implicit quantifier for: Lojban names
naming predicate: The three basic description types
NATO: Acronyms
natural end
continuing beyond: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
contrasted with actual stop: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
Navajo
example: fu'ivla
near the faraway park: Tenses as sumtcita
near the park: Tenses as sumtcita
nearby in time: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
need any box: The problem of “any”
negated intervals
meaning of: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
negating a forethought-connected bridi-tail pair: Multiple compound bridi
negating a forethought-connected sentence pair: Multiple compound bridi
negating a sentence
and truth value: Logical connection and truth tables
negation
complex examples: Scalar negation of selbri
form for emulating natural language negation: Using naku outside a prenex
of operand: Miscellany
of operator: Miscellany
of tenses: Tense negation
negation and logical connectives
caveat for logic chapter discussions: bridi negation and logical connectives
negation between sentences
compared with bridi negation: bridi negation and logical connectives
meaning of: bridi negation and logical connectives
negation boundary
and zero: Negation boundaries
effect of moving: Negation boundaries
negation cmavo
position relative to selbri: Tenses and bridi negation
negation in prenex
effects of position: Negation boundaries
negation manipulation
"na" contrasted with "naku" in difficulty of: Using naku outside a prenex
"naku" contrasted with "na" in difficulty of: Using naku outside a prenex
negation of 'fi'o'-modals
by negating selbri: Modal negation
negation of modals: Modal negation
contradictory: Modal negation
scalar: Modal negation
negation of tenses
meaning of: Tense negation
negation sumti qualifiers
meanings of: sumti qualifiers
negations with logical connectives
effects on expansion of sentence: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
negative answer
quick-tour version: Questions
negative numbers
expressing: Signs and numerical punctuation
negative sign
contrasted with subtraction operator: Special numbers
negator
movement from bridi to sumti: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
new notation: The meaning of lujvo
New York city: Relative phrases, Relative phrases
New York state: Relative phrases
Newport News: Lojban names
news: Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU, Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
nobody
ambiguous interpretations of: What's wrong with this picture?
interpretation of: What's wrong with this picture?
Lojban contrasted with English: What's wrong with this picture?
noisy environments
proposed lerfu words for: Proposed lerfu words for radio communication
non-logical connection
and elidability of terminators: Non-logical connectives
in mathematical expressions: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
in tanru
distinguishing from connection of sumti: Non-logical connectives
of individuals into mass: Non-logical connectives
of individuals into set: Non-logical connectives
of modals: Logical and non-logical connection of modals
of operands: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
of operators: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
of sumti
distinguishing from connection in tanru: Non-logical connectives
of termsets: More about non-logical connectives
non-logical connectives
effect of "nai" on: More about non-logical connectives
grouping: More about non-logical connectives
including tense: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
intervals: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
ordered intervals: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
sentence: More about non-logical connectives
syntax rules summary: Rules for making logical and non-logical connectives
un-ordered intervals: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
within tanru: Logical connection within tanru
non-logical forethought termsets
connecting tagged sumti: More about non-logical connectives
non-logically connected tenses: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
non-Lojban quotation: Quotation summary
non-Lojban text
rules for pause with: Rules for inserting pauses
non-restrictive relative clause
definition (see also incidental relative clause): Incidental relative clauses
non-specific descriptions: The three basic description types
non-standard orthographies
caveat: Oddball orthographies
Cyrillic: Oddball orthographies
Tengwar: Oddball orthographies
zbalermorna: Oddball orthographies
nonagenarian: Comparatives and superlatives
normal circumstances: Event abstraction
notation conventions
for Quick Tour chapter: The concept of the bridi
nothing sits: Negation boundaries
nouns
brivla as Lojban equivalents: brivla
Nth rat: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
nth rat: Special mekso selbri
Nthly: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
null operand
for infix operations with too few operands: Infix operators revisited
null operator
for infix operations with too many operands: Infix operators revisited
number article
explanation of use: Simple infix expressions and equations
number questions: Number questions
answers to: Number questions
number sumti
syntax of: Number summary
with "li": Number summary
with "li" contrasted with "me'o": Number summary
with "me'o": Number summary
with "me'o" contrasted with "li": Number summary
number words
pattern in: Lojban numbers
numbers
as compound cmavo: Lojban numbers
as grammatically complete utterances: Number questions
as possessive sumti: Possessive sumti
cmavo as Lojban equivalents: cmavo
English contrasted with Lojban on exactness: Variables with generalized quantifiers
expressing simple: Lojban numbers
greater than 9: Lojban numbers
implicit quantifier for: Number summary
list of indefinite: Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers
list of special: Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers
Lojban contrasted with English on exactness: Variables with generalized quantifiers
on logical variables: Variables with generalized quantifiers
rafsi for: rafsi
special: Special numbers
talking about contrasted with using for quantification: Simple infix expressions and equations
using for quantification contrasted with talking about: Simple infix expressions and equations
numeric digits in lerfu words
grammar considerations: What about Chinese characters?
numerical punctuation: Signs and numerical punctuation
undefined: Special numbers
numerical selbri
alternative to compensate for restriction on numbers: Special mekso selbri
based on non-numerical sumti: Special mekso selbri
complex: Special mekso selbri
grammar: Special mekso selbri
restriction on numbers used for: Special mekso selbri
special: Special mekso selbri
with lerfu strings: Special mekso selbri
use of "me" with: Special mekso selbri
numerical tenses
effect on use of "boi": Other uses of mekso
NYC: Acronyms

O

O
notation convention for logical connectives: The four basic vowels
observation: Evidentials
observation evidential
contrasted with observative : Evidentials
observative
contrasted with observation evidential: Evidentials
definition: Standard bridi form: cu
observative form
contrasted with command: Standard bridi form: cu
observative with elided CAhA
convention: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
observatives
and abstractions: The syntax of abstraction
quick-tour version: Variant bridi structure
ocean shell: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
octal system
specifying numbers in (see also base): Non-decimal and compound bases
octogenarian: Comparatives and superlatives
of
English word "of"
compared with "do'e": Modal tags: BAI
Old McDonald: The special Lojban characters
old topic: Paragraphs: NIhO
omission of descriptor
effect on ku: Indefinite descriptions
omitting terminators
perils of: Scalar negation of selbri
on right
contrasted with toward right: Movement in space: MOhI
on two occasions: Sub-events
on verge: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
once: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
once and future king: Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection
One
the: cmevla
one-third of food: Special mekso selbri
only: Discursives, Discursives, Discursives, Discursives
only if
compared with English "if … then": Logical connection of bridi
only once: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
open interval: Interval connectives and forethought non-logical connection
expressed with "mi'i": Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
operand
converting from operator: Miscellany
converting into operator: Miscellany
converting selbri into: Using Lojban resources within mekso
converting sumti into: Using Lojban resources within mekso
operand connection
afterthought: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
forethought: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
operand modal connection: Other modal connections
operands
connecting: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
contrasted with general sumti: Simple infix expressions and equations
too few for infix operation: Infix operators revisited
too many for infix operation: Infix operators revisited
operator
converting from operand: Miscellany
converting into operand: Miscellany
converting into selbri: Other uses of mekso
converting selbri into: Using Lojban resources within mekso
operator connection
afterthought: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
forethought: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
operator derived from selbri
effect of selbri place structure on: Using Lojban resources within mekso
operator left-right grouping
as Lojban default: Simple infix expressions and equations
operator precedence
and mathematical notation: Simple infix expressions and equations
effect of pragmatic convention: Simple infix expressions and equations
generalized explicit specification: Simple infix expressions and equations
in Lojban default: Simple infix expressions and equations
plans for future: Explicit operator precedence
rationale for default left-grouping: Simple infix expressions and equations
scope modification with "bi'e": Simple infix expressions and equations
specifying by parenthesis: Simple infix expressions and equations
operator precedence in other languages: Simple infix expressions and equations
operators
analogue of tanru in: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
connecting: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
list of simple: Complete table of VUhU cmavo, with operand structures
operators of VUhU
grammar of operands: Simple infix expressions and equations
opinion: Evidentials
opposite-of-minus: Miscellany
or
English "and/or" contrasted with "either … or … but not both": Logical connection and truth tables
order of variables
in moving to prenex: Variables with generalized quantifiers
ordered sequence
by listing members: Non-logical connectives
contrasted with mass: Non-logical connectives
contrasted with set: Non-logical connectives
ordinal selbri
definition: Special mekso selbri
place structure: Special mekso selbri
place structure effect from subjective numbers: Special mekso selbri
ordinal tense: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
orthography
non-standard: Oddball orthographies
relation to pronunciation: Orthography
outer product: Vectors and matrices
outer quantifier
contrasted with inner quantifier: Quantified descriptions
definition: Quantified descriptions
effect of on meaning: Quantified descriptions
implicit on descriptors: Quantified descriptions
in indefinite description: Indefinite descriptions
outer quantifiers
for expressing subsets: Quantified descriptions
rationale for differences in implicit quantifier on descriptors: Quantified descriptions
outer sumti
prenex for referring to from within relative clause within relative clause: Relative clauses within relative clauses
referring to from within relative clause within relative clause: Relative clauses within relative clauses
owe money: Multiple compound bridi

P

paragraph separation
spoken text: Paragraphs: NIhO
written text: Paragraphs: NIhO
paragraphs
effects on scope: Paragraphs: NIhO
separator: Paragraphs: NIhO
parasitic worms
example: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
parentheses
for complex mekso used as quantifier: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
parenthesis
mathematical: Simple infix expressions and equations
partial quotation: Miscellaneous indicators
parts of speech: Introductory
passive voice: Varying the order of sumti
past event
possible extension into present: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
pastward
as a spatial tense: Dimensionality: VIhA
paternal grandmother
example: lujvo
pausative event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
pause
and cmevla: Rules for inserting pauses
and consonant-final words: Rules for inserting pauses
and Cy-form cmavo: Rules for inserting pauses
and final-syllable stress: Rules for inserting pauses
and non-Lojban text: Rules for inserting pauses
and vowel-initial words: Rules for inserting pauses
between words: Rules for inserting pauses
contrasted with stop: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
contrasted with syllable break: The special Lojban characters
proscribed within words: Rules for inserting pauses
representation of in Lojban: The special Lojban characters
requirement between stressed syllables: cmavo
symbol for: The universal bu
word for: The universal bu
pauses
before vowels: cmavo
rules for: Rules for inserting pauses
peace symbol: Computerized character codes
percent
as numerical punctuation: Signs and numerical punctuation
perils of omitting terminators: Scalar negation of selbri
period
definition of: The special Lojban characters
example of: The special Lojban characters
optional: The special Lojban characters
quick-tour version: Pronunciation
within a word: The special Lojban characters
Persian rug: rafsi
person's arm: Relative phrases
personal pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary
implicit cancellation of by change of speaker/listener: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
implicit quantifier for: Pro-sumti summary
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
personal pronouns
with ko'a-series for he/she/it/they: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
with mi-series for I/you: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
personal pronouns for he/she/it/they
English contrasted with Lojban in organization: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
Pete: cmevla
Pheidippides: Types of event abstractions
phonetic alphabet: Basic phonetics
Phonetic Alphabet
proposed lerfu words for: Proposed lerfu words for radio communication
physical distress
example: Emotional categories
piano-moving: Individuals and masses
pictures
credits for: Acknowledgements and credits
pinyin
as a basis for Chinese characters in Lojban lerfu words: What about Chinese characters?
piro
explanation of meaning: Quantified descriptions
pisu'o
explanation of meaning: Quantified descriptions
place of eating: Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
place structure
adding new places to with modal sumti: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
definition: Introductory
definition of: The concept of the bridi
effect of FA on: Tagging places: FA
effect of modal conversion on: Modal conversion: JAI
empty slots in: Introductory
explicitly mapping sumti to place with FA: Tagging places: FA
gismu: Notes on gismu place structures
instability of: Introductory
leaving a sumti place unspecified in with zo'e: Standard bridi form: cu
notation conventions: Introductory
re-ordering by conversion: Conversion of simple selbri
place structure and tanru inversion: Inversion of tanru: co
place structure of selbri
determining: Introductory
place structure order
effect of FA on: Tagging places: FA
place structure questions: Tagging places: FA
place structures
omitting places with FA: Tagging places: FA
omitting places with zo'e: Standard bridi form: cu
plant grows: Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal sentence connection: the causals, Modal negation
plants
use of fu'ivla for specific: fu'ivla
plausibility
in abbreviated lujvo: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
playgrounds: Dependent places
pleases: The sumti di'u and la'e di'u
plural
Lojban equivalent of: Approximation and inexact numbers
plural masses
possible use for: Quantified descriptions
plurals
Lojban contrasted with English in necessity of marking: The three basic description types
plurals with le
meaning of: Individuals and masses
point
event considered as: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
point-event abstraction
place structure: Types of event abstractions
point-event abstractions
definition: Types of event abstractions
related tense contours: Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
point-event abstractor: Types of event abstractions
pointing
reference by: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
pointing cmavo
quick-tour version: Words that can act as sumti
police lineup: Number questions
Polish notation
and mekso goals: Introductory
Polish notation mixed with infix: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
example: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
politeness
thank you and you're welcome: Vocative scales
you're welcome: Vocative scales, Vocative scales
portion
on set contrasted with on individual: Quantified descriptions
portion selbri
definition: Special mekso selbri
place structure: Special mekso selbri
place structure effect from subjective numbers: Special mekso selbri
positive numbers
explicit expression: Signs and numerical punctuation
positive sign
contrasted with addition operator: Simple infix expressions and equations
possessed in relative phrases
compared with possessor: Relative phrases
possession
expressing with "po": Relative phrases
intrinsic
expressing with po'e: Relative phrases
Lojban usage compared with French and German in omission/inclusion: Relative phrases
Lojban usage contrasted with English in omission/inclusion: Relative phrases
quick-tour version: Possession
possession not ownership
quick-tour version: Possession
possessive sumti
compared with relative phrase: Possessive sumti
contrasted with relative phrases in complexity allowed: Possessive sumti
definition: Possessive sumti
effect on elidability of ku: Possessive sumti
relative clauses on: Possessive sumti
syntax allowed: Possessive sumti
with relative clauses on possessive sumti: Possessive sumti
possessive sumti and relative clauses
development history: Possessive sumti
possessive sumti with relative clauses
effect of placement: Possessive sumti
possessor in relative phrases
compared with possessed: Relative phrases
possessor sumti
definition: Possessive sumti
potential
expressing in past/future: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
potential events
expressing implicitly: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
prayer: Ordering lujvo places., Ordering lujvo places., Ordering lujvo places.
precedence
mathematical default: Simple infix expressions and equations
precise erasures: Erasure: SI, SA, SU
predicate answers: Questions and answers
predication
as a relationship: The concept of the bridi
compared with bridi: The concept of the bridi
Preem Palver: Other kinds of simple selbri
pregnant sister: Discursives, Discursives
prenex
considerations for dropping: Dropping the prenex
dropping for terseness: Dropping the prenex
effect of order of variables in: Dropping the prenex
explanation: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
internal to a bridi: The problem of “any”
purpose of: Dropping the prenex
removing when numeric quantifiers present: Variables with generalized quantifiers
syntax of: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
use for outer sumti reference: Relative clauses within relative clauses
prenex manipulation
exporting "na" from left of prenex: bridi negation and logical connectives
importing "na" from selbri: bridi negation and logical connectives
moving "naku" past bound variable: bridi negation and logical connectives
rules: bridi negation and logical connectives
prenex scope
for sentences joined by ".i": A few notes on variables
for sentences joined by ijeks: A few notes on variables
in abstractions: A few notes on variables
in embedded bridi: A few notes on variables
in relative clauses: A few notes on variables
informal: A few notes on variables
prepositions
cmavo as Lojban equivalents: cmavo
pretty
English ambiguity of: Complex tanru grouping
pretty little girls' school
forty ways: “Pretty little girls' school” : forty ways to say it
previous topic: Paragraphs: NIhO
pride of lions: Using Lojban resources within mekso
primitive roots
gismu as: brivla
principle of consistency
of logical-if statements: Logical connection of bridi
pro-bridi
as abbreviation for bridi: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
broda-series: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
compared to pro-sumti as means of abbreviation: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
definition: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
overriding sumti of antecedent bridi for: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
scope effect of new paragraph: Paragraphs: NIhO
pro-bridi assignment
"no'i" effect on: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
explicit cancellation of with "da'o": Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
pro-bridi rafsi
as producing context-dependent meanings: lujvo based on pro-sumti
pro-sumti
and discursive utterances: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
as possessive sumti: Possessive sumti
classes of: Pro-sumti summary
compared to pro-bridi as means of abbreviation: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
compared to pronouns in usage as abbreviations: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
contrasted with description: The five kinds of simple sumti
definition: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
di'u-series: Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
for listener(s): Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
for listeners and/or speakers and/or others: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
for relativized sumti in relative clauses: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
for speaker(s): Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
implicit quantifier for: Pro-sumti summary
ko'a-series: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
lerfu as: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
lerfu string
effect on reference to lerfu itself: References to lerfu
lerfu strings
interaction with quantifiers and boi: lerfu words as pro-sumti
mi-series: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
quick-tour version: Words that can act as sumti
rafsi for: lujvo based on pro-sumti
referring to place of different bridi with go'i-series: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
referring to place of same bridi with vo'a-series: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
scope effect of new paragraph: Paragraphs: NIhO
series: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
ti-series: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
typical: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
unspecified: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
vo'a-series: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
pro-sumti assignment
"no'i" effect on: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
explicit cancellation of with "da'o": Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
pro-sumti for "we"
contrasted with English "we": Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
pro-sumti for speaker/listener/others
as masses: Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
relation to "joi": Personal pro-sumti: the mi-series
pro-sumti for utterances: Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
pro-sumti rafsi
anticipated use of for abbreviating inconvenient forms: lujvo based on pro-sumti
effect of on place structure of lujvo: lujvo based on pro-sumti
probability .5: Special mekso selbri
probability selbri
definition: Special mekso selbri
place structure: Special mekso selbri
place structure effect from subjective numbers: Special mekso selbri
values: Special mekso selbri
process abstraction
place structure: Types of event abstractions
process abstractions
definition: Types of event abstractions
related tense contours: Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
process abstractor: Types of event abstractions
process event
described: Types of event abstractions
pronouncement: Evidentials
pronouns
as anaphora: Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
compared to pro-sumti in usage as abbreviations: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
pronouns in English
as independent of abbreviations: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
as noun abbreviations: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
pronunciation
IPA for Lojban: Basic phonetics
quick-tour version: Pronunciation
relation to orthography: Orthography
standard: Basic phonetics
properties
place structure: Property abstractions
property abstraction
specifying sumti place of property with "ce'u": Abstraction focus pro-sumti: ce'u
property abstractions
specifying determining place by sumti ellipsis: Property abstractions
specifying determining place with "ce'u": Property abstractions
sumti ellipsis in: Property abstractions
use of multiple "ce'u" for relationship abstraction: Property abstractions
property of loving: Property abstractions
proposed law: Eliding SE rafsi from seltau
proposed lerfu words
as working basis: Proposed lerfu words – introduction
propositional
of attitudinals: Propositional attitude indicators
propositional attitudes: Predication/sentence abstraction
compared with knowledge discursives: Discursives
protocol
computer communications using COI: Vocative scales
parliamentary using COI: Vocative scales
using vocatives: Vocative scales
punctuation
in numbers: Signs and numerical punctuation
list of numerical: Complete table of PA cmavo: digits, punctuation, and other numbers
punctuation lerfu words
interaction with different alphabet systems: Punctuation marks
mechanism for creating: Punctuation marks
rationale for "lau": Punctuation marks
punctuation marks
cmavo as Lojban equivalents: cmavo

Q

quack: Alien alphabets
quadratic formula: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
qualified sumti
contrasted with unqualified sumti: sumti qualifiers
quantification
before description sumti compared with before non-description sumti: Quantified descriptions
quantificational pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary
implicit quantification rules: Pro-sumti summary
quantified space: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
quantified sumti
different types contrasted for scope for distribution: Grouping of quantifiers
quantified temporal tense
definition: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
negating with "nai": Interval properties: TAhE and roi
quantified temporal tense with direction
Lojban contrasted with English in implications: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
quantified temporal tenses
"once" contrasted with "only once": Interval properties: TAhE and roi
caveat on implication of: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
quantified tenses
as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
quantifier
lerfu string as: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
on previously quantified variable: A few notes on variables
quantifier scope
in multiple connected sentences: bridi negation and logical connectives
quantifiers
effect of moving "naku": Using naku outside a prenex
with logical variables: Variables with generalized quantifiers
with sumti: Quantified sumti
quark: fu'ivla
question pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary
implicit quantifier for: Pro-sumti summary
questions
answering with "go'i": Anaphoric pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ri-series and the go'i-series
connection: Truth questions and connective questions
digit: Number questions
fill-in-the-blank: Questions and answers
marking in advance: Miscellaneous indicators
multiple: Questions and answers
number: Number questions, Questions and answers
operator: Other uses of mekso
place structure position: Tagging places: FA
quick-tour version: Questions, Questions
rhetorical: Miscellaneous indicators
selbri: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers
sumti: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo, Questions and answers
truth: Questions and answers
with "xu": Miscellaneous indicators
quick runner: Simple tanru
quotation
contrasted with "me'o" for representing lerfu: References to lerfu
contrasted with sentence abstraction: Predication/sentence abstraction
four kinds: Quotation summary
implicit quantifier for: Quotation summary
quotations
as possessive sumti: Possessive sumti
implicit quantifier for: Quantified sumti

R

r-hyphen
contrasted with n-hyphen in requirements for use: rafsi
use of: lujvo, rafsi
radio communication
proposed lerfu words for: Proposed lerfu words for radio communication
radix
decimal (see also base): Non-decimal and compound bases
rafsi
as fu'ivla categorizer: fu'ivla
based on pro-sumti: lujvo based on pro-sumti
considerations restricting construction of: rafsi
contrasted with cmavo in usage: rafsi
contrasted with same-form cmavo in meaning: lujvo
contrasted with words: rafsi
conventional meaning for "cu'o": Miscellany
conventional meaning for "frinu": Miscellany
definition: lujvo
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
forms of: rafsi
four-letter
requirement for y-hyphen: rafsi
lack of
effect on forming lujvo: rafsi
level of uniqueness of relation to gismu: rafsi
long: rafsi
multiple for each gismu: Considerations for making lujvo
multiplicity of for single gismu: rafsi
possible forms for construction of: rafsi
rationale for assignments of: rafsi
rules for combining to form lujvo: lujvo
selection considerations in making lujvo: rafsi
short: rafsi
uniqueness in gismu referent of: rafsi
use of: rafsi
rafsi assignments
non-reassignability of: rafsi
rafsi for numbers: rafsi
rafsi form
effect of choice on meaning of lujvo: lujvo
rafsi fu'ivla: Cultural and other non-algorithmic gismu
rafsi space: rafsi
Ralph: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
rat eats cheese: Interval properties: TAhE and roi, Tenses as sumtcita, Tenses as sumtcita, Tenses as sumtcita
rat eats cheese in park: Conversion of sumtcita: JAI, Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
rats are brown: Masses and sets
rats in park: Special mekso selbri
re-ordering logical variables with "se": Dropping the prenex
real world
contrasted with hypothetical world
example: Discursives
real world point of view: Discursives
Received Pronunciation: IPA for English speakers
reciprocal
expression of mathematical: Signs and numerical punctuation
reciprocal pro-sumti: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
reciprocity
expressing with "soi": Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and "soi": Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
recital rooms: Dependent places
Red Pony: sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers
red pony: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
redundancy
effect on vocative design: Vocative scales
reference
ambiguity of "ti"/"ta"/"tu": What are you pointing at?
and discursive utterances: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
quick-tour version: The sumti di'u and la'e di'u
to relativized sumti with "ke'a": What are you pointing at?
use of relative clause for: What are you pointing at?
reference frame
specifying for direction tenses: Movement in space: MOhI
reference frame for directions in tenses: Movement in space: MOhI
reference grammar: What is this book?
referent
of operand: Miscellany
referring to with "la'e": sumti qualifiers
referent of pro-bridi
definition: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
referent of pro-sumti
definition: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
reflexive pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
regularly: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
relation of first places in logical connection of observatives
rationale: Compound bridi
relationship
active/static/attributive compared: The concept of the bridi
as basis of sentence: Introductory
objects of: Introductory
relationship abstraction: Property abstractions
relative clause
compared with tanru: Incidental relative clauses
connecting to relative phrase with "zi'e": Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
contrasted with tanru: Incidental relative clauses
effect of omission of ke'a on : What are you pointing at?
restrictive (see also restrictive relative clause): Incidental relative clauses
use for reference: What are you pointing at?
relative clause scope
extending to preceding sumti with "vu'o": Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o, Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
relative clauses
as part of name: Relative clauses and descriptors
effect of commas in English: Incidental relative clauses
effect on elidability of "be'o": Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
impact of indefinite sumti on placement: Relative clauses and descriptors
impact of la on placement: Relative clauses and descriptors
impact of LAhE on placement: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
impact of NAhE on placement: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
kinds of: Incidental relative clauses
list of cmavo for: Index of relative clause cmavo
on connected sumti: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
on names: Relative clauses and descriptors
on number: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
on possessive sumti: Possessive sumti
on quotation: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
on vocative phrases: Relative clauses in vocative phrases
placement with vocative phrases: Relative clauses in vocative phrases
relative clauses within: Relative clauses within relative clauses
restricted contrasted with incidental: Incidental relative clauses
restricted contrasted with incidental in English expression: Incidental relative clauses
syntax with indefinite sumti: Relative clauses and descriptors
use in restricting existential claims: Restricted claims: da poi
use in restricting universal claims: Restricted claims: da poi
use of "ke'a" for referral to relativized sumti in: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
relative clauses and indefinite sumti
placement considerations: Relative clauses and descriptors
relative clauses and LAhE
placement considerations: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
relative clauses and NAhE
placement considerations: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
relative clauses and names
placement considerations: Relative clauses and descriptors
relative clauses and possessive sumti
development history: Possessive sumti
relative clauses on "lo"
syntax suggestion: Relative clauses and descriptors
relative clauses on complex sumti
Lojban contrasted with English: Relative clauses and complex sumti: vu'o
relative clauses on indefinite sumti
syntax considerations: Relative clauses and descriptors
relative clauses with possessive sumti
effect of placement: Possessive sumti
relative phrase
as an abbreviation of a common relative clause: Relative phrases
compared with possessive sumti: Possessive sumti
connecting to relative clause with "zi'e": Multiple relative clauses: zi'e
rationale for: Relative phrases
syntax of: Relative phrases
relative phrases
contrasted with possessive sumti in complexity allowed: Possessive sumti
contrasted with relative clauses in preciseness: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
improving preciseness with modals: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
relative phrases with modals
compared to relative clauses in preciseness: Modal relative phrases; Comparison
relative pro-sumti: Pro-sumti summary
relativity theory
relation to Lojban tense system: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
relativized sumti
definition: What are you pointing at?
in relative clauses within relative clauses: Relative clauses within relative clauses
remembered
example: Evidentials
repeating decimals
expressing with numerical punctuation: Signs and numerical punctuation
marking start of repeating portion: Signs and numerical punctuation
representing lerfu
"lu" contrasted with "me'o": References to lerfu
respectively: Non-logical connectives
specifying with "fa'u": Non-logical connectives
with different relationships: More about non-logical connectives
restricted claims
definition: Restricted claims: da poi
restricted variable
compared with indefinite description: Variables with generalized quantifiers
restrictive relative clause
definition: Incidental relative clauses
resume
contrasted with begin: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
resumptive event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
retrospective event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
revelation
example: Evidentials
reverse Polish notation
and mekso goals: Introductory
definition: Reverse Polish notation
marker: Reverse Polish notation
number of operands: Reverse Polish notation
operands of: Reverse Polish notation
parentheses in operands of: Reverse Polish notation
terminator: Reverse Polish notation
use of parentheses in: Reverse Polish notation
with too few operands: Reverse Polish notation
with too many operands: Reverse Polish notation
reviewers of this book: Acknowledgements and credits
rhetorical question: Miscellaneous indicators
rich and German: More about non-logical connectives, More about non-logical connectives
right-grouping in tanru
with "bo": Complex tanru grouping
right-grouping rule
definition of: Complex tanru grouping
righteous indignation
example: Attitudinal modifiers
rock face: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
roger
example: Vocative scales
romaji
as a basis for kanji characters in Lojban lerfu words: What about Chinese characters?
Roman Empire: Types of event abstractions, Types of event abstractions
room which he built: Relative clauses within relative clauses, Relative clauses within relative clauses
rounded down: Approximation and inexact numbers
rounded numbers
expressing: Approximation and inexact numbers
rounded up: Approximation and inexact numbers
rounded/unrounded vowels: Basic phonetics
RP
as abbreviation for reverse Polish notation: Reverse Polish notation
rug
Persian: rafsi
runner shoe: tanru

S

said John: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI, Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
salad ingredients: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
Sapir-Whorf effects
and emotional indicators: Tentative conclusion
sarcasm
example: Discursives
expressing: Discursives
scalar attitude: Attitudes as scales
scalar negation
effect on selbri: Scalar negation of selbri
scalar negation of modals
explanation of meaning: Modal negation
scalar negation of non-logical connective: More about non-logical connectives
scale
granular contrasted with continuous: Special mekso selbri
scale of redness: Special mekso selbri
scale selbri
definition: Special mekso selbri
place structure: Special mekso selbri
place structure effect from subjective numbers: Special mekso selbri
school building: Dependent places
schooner: Lojban content words: brivla
scientific names
rules for: cmevla
scientific notation
rationale for order of places: Infix operators revisited
with "gei": Infix operators revisited
score
as 20-year span: Four score and seven: a mekso problem
as alternate base for years: Four score and seven: a mekso problem
seconds
example of timestamp: Non-decimal and compound bases
section numbering: Other uses of mekso
see with eye: Modal selbri
see with left eye: Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
selbri
as part of description: The three basic description types
brivla as: Lojban content words: brivla
converting into an operand: Using Lojban resources within mekso
converting into an operator: Using Lojban resources within mekso
converting operator into: Other uses of mekso
definition: Lojban content words: brivla, Introductory
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
lerfu string as: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
omitting with "co'e": Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
place structure of: Introductory
place structure of converted operator: Other uses of mekso
relation to bridi: Lojban content words: brivla
scalar negation of: Scalar negation of selbri
with GOhA: Other kinds of simple selbri
selbri from sumti: selbri based on sumti: me
selbri list for quick tour: Some words used to indicate selbri relations
selbri logical variables: selbri variables
selbri place structure
effect on operator formed by: Using Lojban resources within mekso
selbri placement among sumti
effect of multiple quantification on: Using naku outside a prenex
selbri questions
quick-tour version: Questions
selbri variables
form when not in prenex: selbri variables
prenex form as indefinite description: selbri variables
quantified: selbri variables
selbri-first bridi
effect on sumti places: Standard bridi form: cu
effect on use of cu: Tagging places: FA
specifying first sumti place in with fa: Tagging places: FA
self-orientation
example: Attitudinal modifiers
selma'o
cross-reference list of
selma'o catalog: A catalogue of selma'o
definition: cmavo
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
seltau
compared with English adjective: lujvo
compared with English adverb: lujvo
definition: Inversion of tanru: co
definition of: Simple tanru
effect on meaning of tanru: Simple tanru
filling sumti places in: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
seltcita sumti
definition (see also modal sumti): Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
sentence
basic Lojban: Introductory
sentences
close grouping: Sentences: I
connecting non-logically: More about non-logical connectives
connecting with tense: Tense relations between sentences
forethought tense connection of: Tense relations between sentences
separator for joining: Sentences: I
tenseless
quick-tour version: Tenses
separate questions
quick-tour version: Questions
separately tensed sentences
contrasted with tense connected sentences: Tense relations between sentences
sequence
as an abstract list: Non-logical connectives
contrasted with list: Non-logical connectives
contrasted with set: sumti qualifiers
sequence of events
expressing non-time-related sequences: More about non-logical connectives
sequence of tense rules
Lojban contrasted with English: Tenses in subordinate bridi
set
as specified by members: Non-logical connectives
by listing members with "ce": Non-logical connectives
compared with mass as abstract of multiple individuals: Masses and sets
contrasted with mass in attribution of component properties: Masses and sets
contrasted with mass in distribution of properties: Non-logical connectives
contrasted with ordered sequence: Non-logical connectives
expressing measurement standard for indefinites: Special mekso selbri
expressing relation with individuals forming set: Special mekso selbri
expressing relation with mass formed from set: Special mekso selbri
set of all rats: Special mekso selbri
set of rats: sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers
set operations: More about non-logical connectives
sets
properties of: Masses and sets
rule for implicit outer quantifier: Quantified descriptions
use in Lojban place structure: Masses and sets
sexual discomfort
example: Emotional categories
sexual teacher
male
example: lujvo-making examples
shared bridi-tail sumti
avoiding: Other modal connections
shell worm: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
shellfish: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo, Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
Sherman tank: rafsi
shift
single-letter
grammar of: Upper and lower cases
shift word
for single letter: Upper and lower cases
scope: Upper and lower cases
shift words
canceling effect: Alien alphabets
for face: Alien alphabets
for font: Alien alphabets
ship sank: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours
shoehorn: Dependent places
shook stick: What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?, What are pro-sumti and pro-bridi? What are they for?
short rafsi: rafsi
short rafsi form
compared with long form in effect on lujvo meaning: lujvo
signed numbers
expressing: Signs and numerical punctuation
signs on numbers
grammar: Signs and numerical punctuation
Simon says: Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
simple sumti: The five kinds of simple sumti
simultaneously: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
sinful
example: Attitudinal modifiers
single consonants
contrasted with consonant clusters: Consonant clusters
contrasted with doubled consonants: Consonant clusters
single-letter shift
as toggle: Upper and lower cases
single-word quotation: Quotation summary
singular me: Special mekso selbri
sister pregnant: Discursives, Discursives
six-shooter: Sub-events
size
order with dimensionality in spatial tense intervals: Dimensionality: VIhA
slinku'i test
definition: fu'ivla
slowdown: Types of event abstractions
smiley face
example: The universal bu
word for: The universal bu
sneak in: Eliding KE and KEhE rafsi from lujvo
snow falls: Tenses as sumtcita
snowball's chance: Special mekso selbri
social butterfly: tanru
Socrates: Modal sentence connection: the causals
some do not go to school: Using naku outside a prenex
some relationship: selbri variables
somebody
contrasted with somebody else: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
somebody loves self: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
somebody loves somebody: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
somebody's dog: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
something
contrasted with someone: Restricted claims: da poi
expressing using "su'o": Variables with generalized quantifiers
unspecified definite with "zo'e": Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
something is loved by everybody: Negation boundaries
something sees everything: Universal claims
something sees me: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables, Variables with generalized quantifiers
sounds
clarity of: Basic phonetics
complex: Basic phonetics
difficult: Basic phonetics
sounds for letters
Lojban contrasted with English: Basic phonetics
source languages
use in creating gismu: The gismu creation algorithm
south face: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
sow grain: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
sowed grain: Tense questions: cu'e
space
as time-based metaphor: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
contrasted with time in number of directions: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
space intervals
compared with time intervals in continuity: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
space location
as part of tense system (see also tense
spatial tense): Introductory
space tenses
quick-tour version: Tenses
space/time metaphor
expressing direction mapping for: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
spaghetti: fu'ivla, fu'ivla
Spanish ch
example: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
Spanish ll
example: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
spatial contours
as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
contrasted with temporal event contours: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
expressing: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
spatial directions
list of: List of spatial directions and direction-like relations
spatial information
adding to a sentence with tense sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
spatial interval modifiers
order in tense: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
spatial intervals
expressing degree of continuity over: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
spatial tense
4-dimensional interaction with temporal tense: Dimensionality: VIhA
as an imaginary journey: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
as optional in English: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
compared with temporal tense in elidability: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
contrasted with temporal in dimensionality: Dimensionality: VIhA
definition: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
direction: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
distance: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
four-dimensional: Dimensionality: VIhA
linear: Dimensionality: VIhA
one-dimensional: Dimensionality: VIhA
order relative to temporal: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
planar: Dimensionality: VIhA
reference frame: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
referent of: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
three-dimensional: Dimensionality: VIhA
two-dimensional: Dimensionality: VIhA
spatial tense intervals
order of size and dimensionality in: Dimensionality: VIhA
order of VEhA and VIhA in: Dimensionality: VIhA
spatial tenses
as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
order of direction and distance specifications: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
speaker's state of knowledge: Discursives
speaker-listener cooperation: Questions
speaker-relative viewpoint
contrasted with event-relative viewpoint: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
specific descriptions: The three basic description types
specific terms
use of fu'ivla for: fu'ivla
specificity
expressing with "po": Relative phrases
speech rhythm
for grouping in English: Three-part tanru grouping with bo
spelling out words
Lojban contrasted with English in usefulness: A to Z in Lojban, plus one
spiritual discomfort
example: Emotional categories
SQL: Acronyms
square brackets
use of in notation: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
standard bridi form
definition: Standard bridi form: cu
standard for subjective numbers
specifying: Special mekso selbri
standard pronunciation: Basic phonetics
starting marker: Erasure: SI, SA, SU
state abstraction
place structure: Types of event abstractions
state abstractions
definition: Types of event abstractions
related tense contours: Event-type abstractors and event contour tenses
state abstractor: Types of event abstractions
state event
described: Types of event abstractions
steady speed: Types of event abstractions
stereotypical
as not derogatory in Lojban: Descriptors for typical objects
compared with typical: Descriptors for typical objects
stereotypical objects: Descriptors for typical objects
Steven Mark Jones: lerfu words as pro-sumti
sticky modals
'fi'o' proscribed from: Sticky modals
canceling: Sticky modals
definition: Sticky modals
sticky tenses
and CAhA: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
canceling: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
definition: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
effect of nau on: Tenses in subordinate bridi
effect on future tense meaning: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
from part of a multiple tense: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
stop
contrasted with finish: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
contrasted with pause: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
stories
flow of time in: Story time
story tense
Lojban convention contrasted with English convention: Story time
story time
as a convention for inferring tense: Story time
definition: Story time
rationale for: Story time
tenseless sentences in: Story time
with no initial sticky time: Story time
stress
definition of: Syllabication and stress
effect of buffer vowel on: Buffering of consonant clusters
effect of syllabic consonants on: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
example: Emotional categories
final syllable
rules for pause after: Rules for inserting pauses
irregular marked with upper-case: Upper and lower cases
levels of: Syllabication and stress
on cmavo: cmavo
primary: Syllabication and stress
quick-tour version: Pronunciation
rules for: Syllabication and stress
secondary: Syllabication and stress
showing non-standard: Orthography
stressed syllable
compared with stressed vowel: Syllabication and stress
stressed vowel
compared with stressed syllable: Syllabication and stress
stroke cat then rabbit: Tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives, Tensed logical connectives
structure of examples: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
structure of this book: What is this book?
structure words: cmavo
sub-subscripts: Subscripts
subjective amounts
expressing: Indefinite numbers
subjective numbers
effect on place structure for cardinal selbri: Special mekso selbri
effect on place structure for ordinal selbri: Special mekso selbri
effect on place structure for portion selbri: Special mekso selbri
effect on place structure for probability selbri: Special mekso selbri
effect on place structure for scale selbri: Special mekso selbri
rationale for effect on place structure: Special mekso selbri
specifying standard for: Special mekso selbri
subjective portions
expressing: Indefinite numbers
subordinate clause tense
effect of main bridi tense on: Tenses in subordinate bridi
Lojban compared with Esperanto: Tenses in subordinate bridi
Lojban compared with Russian: Tenses in subordinate bridi
Lojban contrasted with English: Tenses in subordinate bridi
subordinate clauses
tense usage rules in English: Tenses in subordinate bridi
subscripted topics: Paragraphs: NIhO
subscripting: Subscripts: XI
subscripts
and fuzzy truths: Subscripts: XI
and names: Subscripts: XI
and paragraph separators: Subscripts: XI
and pro-sumti: Subscripts: XI
and sumti re-ordering: Subscripts: XI
and tense: Subscripts: XI
before main expression: Subscripts
effects on elidability of terminators: Subscripts
external grammar of: Subscripts
for sticky tense: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
internal grammar of: Subscripts
lerfu string as: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
mathematical: Subscripts: XI
multiple as sub-subscript: Subscripts
multiple for same base word: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
on "ke'a" for nested relative clauses: Relativized pro-sumti: ke'a
terminator for: Subscripts
to form matrices of more than 2 dimensions: Vectors and matrices
use with "ke'a" for outer sumti reference: Relative clauses within relative clauses
use with logical variables: A few notes on variables
subscripts on lerfu words
effect on elidability of "boi": Subscripts
subsets
expressing with outer quantifiers: Quantified descriptions
subtraction operator
contrasted with negative sign: Special numbers
subtypes of words: brivla
sumtcita
based on event contours: Tenses as sumtcita
based on spatial contours: Tenses as sumtcita
based on tense direction: Tenses as sumtcita
based on tense distance: Tenses as sumtcita
based on tenses: Tenses as sumtcita
definition (see also modal tag): Modal places: FIhO, FEhU
event contours contrasted with direction/distance as basis for: Tenses as sumtcita
sumtcita and linked sumti: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
sumtcita and modal tags: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
sumtcita and tense tags: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
sumtcita based on dimension: Tenses as sumtcita
sumtcita based on event contours
relation of main bridi to sumti process in: Tenses as sumtcita
sumtcita based on interval continuousness: Tenses as sumtcita
sumtcita based on interval properties: Tenses as sumtcita
sumtcita based on interval size: Tenses as sumtcita
sumtcita based on quantified tenses: Tenses as sumtcita
sumti
as having implicit quantifiers: Quantified sumti
as objects in place structure slots: Introductory
beginning with "ke": Grouping of afterthought connectives
between descriptor and description selbri: Possessive sumti
classified by types of objects referred to: Individuals and masses
converting into an operand: Using Lojban resources within mekso
definition: The five kinds of simple sumti, Introductory
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
descriptions as: The five kinds of simple sumti
dropping trailing unspecified: Standard bridi form: cu
explicitly mapping into place structure with FA: Tagging places: FA
for individual objects: Individuals and masses
for mass objects: Individuals and masses
for set objects: Individuals and masses
forethought tense connection of: Tense relations between sentences
irrelevant to relationship: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
kinds of: The five kinds of simple sumti
multiple in one place with FA: Tagging places: FA
names as: The five kinds of simple sumti
numbers as: The five kinds of simple sumti
omitted first place in selbri-first bridi: Standard bridi form: cu
order in selbri: Standard bridi form: cu
order in selbri-first bridi: Standard bridi form: cu
pro-sumti as: The five kinds of simple sumti
quotations as: The five kinds of simple sumti
re-ordering with FA: Tagging places: FA
relation with bridi: The concept of the bridi
sumti connection
afterthought: sumti connection
forethought: sumti connection
sumti in one place
multiple ones: Tagging places: FA
sumti into selbri: selbri based on sumti: me
sumti logical connection: sumti connection
compared with bridi logical connections: sumti connection
contrasted with tanru logical connection: Logical connection within tanru
rationale for: sumti connection
sumti modal connection: Other modal connections
sumti placement
variant
quick-tour version: Variant bridi structure
sumti qualifiers
as short forms for common special cases: sumti qualifiers
elidable terminator for qualified sumti: sumti qualifiers
external syntax of: sumti qualifiers
for negation: sumti qualifiers
internal syntax of: sumti qualifiers
list of: sumti qualifiers
sumti questions
quick-tour version: Questions
sumti reordering
quick-tour version: Varying the order of sumti
sumti with "lo"
compared to indefinite sumti: Grouping of quantifiers
sumti with tense
effect of main bridi tense on: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
sumti with tenses
quick-tour version: Tenses
sumti-based description
definition: sumti-based descriptions
inner quantifier on: sumti-based descriptions
outer quantifier on: sumti-based descriptions
sumti-based descriptions with le
as increasing restricting to in-mind: sumti-based descriptions
Sun
the: cmevla
sunburn
example: Property abstractions
superfective event contour: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
superscripts: Subscripts
supervising
as a contribution to mass action: Non-logical connectives
supper: rafsi
supplementary information: Dependent places
Susan: Parenthesis and metalinguistic commentary: TO, TOI, SEI
sword blade: lujvo with more than two parts.
syllabaries
lerfu word representation: What about Chinese characters?
syllabic consonant
effect on stress determination: cmevla
syllabic consonants: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
effect on stress: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
final in word: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
syllabic l
considered as a consonant for morphological discussions: Introductory
syllabic m
as a consonant for morphological discussions: Introductory
syllabic n
as a consonant for morphological discussions: Introductory
syllabic pronunciations of consonants
in fu'ivla: fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla
in fu'ivla category attachment: fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla, fu'ivla
syllabic r
as a consonant for morphological discussions: Introductory
syllabication
and names: Syllabication and stress
definition of: Syllabication and stress
examples of: Syllabication and stress
rules for: Syllabication and stress
variants of: Syllabication and stress
syllable break
contrasted with pause: The special Lojban characters
representation in Lojban: The special Lojban characters
symbol for: The universal bu
word for: The universal bu
symbol
for operand: Miscellany
referring to with "lu'e": sumti qualifiers
symmetrical tanru: Some types of symmetrical tanru
symmetrical tanru types
both separately true: Some types of symmetrical tanru
one or other true: Some types of symmetrical tanru
using crucial/typical parts: Some types of symmetrical tanru
using more inclusive class: Some types of symmetrical tanru
symmetrical veljvo: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
sympathy
example: Attitude questions; empathy; attitude contours

T

tables
format of: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
tagged sumti termsets
connecting with non-logical forethought connectives: More about non-logical connectives
tail-terms
definition: Compound bridi
Take care!: Vocatives and commands
Talk!: Vocatives and commands
talker: tanru
taller: The concept of the bridi
tan(pi/2) = infinity: Using Lojban resources within mekso
tank
Sherman: rafsi
tanru
ambiguity in: lujvo
ambiguity of: lujvo, Simple tanru
and abstractions: The syntax of abstraction
and conversion
quick-tour version: tanru
and creativity: lujvo
as ambiguous: Simple tanru
asymmetrical: Some types of asymmetrical tanru
combination of: lujvo
containing mathematical expressions: Other kinds of simple selbri
default left-grouping of: Three-part tanru grouping with bo
definition: Simple tanru
quick-tour version: Lojban grammatical terms
expanding: Discursives
explanation of: lujvo
explicating: Discursives
explicitly defining: Discursives
expression of: lujvo
meaning of: Simple tanru
place structure of: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
quick-tour version: tanru
place structures of: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o, Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
possible meanings of: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
primary meaning of: Simple tanru
purpose: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
quick-tour version: tanru
reducing logically connected sumti to
caveat: Logical connection within tanru
simple: Simple tanru
to lujvo: lujvo
with GOhA: Other kinds of simple selbri
tanru and conversion: Conversion of simple selbri
tanru connection
connotation of non-logical: Non-logical connectives
tanru connection grouping
guheks unmarked tanru: Logical connection within tanru
tanru conversion
effect on place structure
quick-tour version: tanru
tanru default grouping
quick-tour version: tanru
tanru grouping
complex: Complex tanru grouping
effect of jeks: Logical connection within tanru
effect of tanru inversion on: Inversion of tanru: co
guheks compared with jeks: Logical connection within tanru
three-part: Three-part tanru grouping with bo
with "bo": Complex tanru grouping
with "ke": Complex tanru with ke and ke'e
with "ke" and "bo": Complex tanru with ke and ke'e
tanru grouping with JA+BO
effect on tanru grouping: Logical connection within tanru
tanru inversion: Inversion of tanru: co
definition: Inversion of tanru: co
effect on tanru grouping: Inversion of tanru: co
in complex tanru: Inversion of tanru: co
multiple: Inversion of tanru: co
rule for removing: Inversion of tanru: co
where allowed: Inversion of tanru: co
tanru inversion and place structure: Inversion of tanru: co
tanru logical connection
contrasted with sumti logical connection: Logical connection within tanru
tanru nested within tanru: Three-part tanru grouping with bo
technical terms: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
telephone conversation
hello: Vocative scales
television: IPA for English speakers
template: Minor abstraction types
temporal direction
exception in meaning when following "ze'e": Interval properties: TAhE and roi
temporal information
adding to a sentence with tense sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
temporal tense
as mandatory in English: Introductory
compared with spatial tense in elidability: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
historical definition: Introductory
interaction with 4-dimensional spatial tense: Dimensionality: VIhA
Lojban contrasted with English in necessity: Introductory
order relative to spatial: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
quantified with direction: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
real relationship to time in English: Introductory
temporal tense elision
compared with spatial tense elision in meaning: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
temporal tenses
compared with spatial tenses: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
ten
expressing as number: Lojban numbers
tense
aorist: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
as observer-based: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
as subjective perception: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
connecting sentences in with: Tense relations between sentences
contradictory negation contrasted with scalar negation of: Tense negation
effect of different position in sentence: Introductory
effect of sticky tense on: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
emphasizing by position in sentence: Introductory
explanation of presentation method: Introductory
expressing movement in: Movement in space: MOhI
handling multiple episodes: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
in forethought bridi-tail connection
special rule: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
interval contrasted with point: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
Lojban contrasted with English in implications of completeness: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
Lojban contrasted with English in implying actuality: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
Lojban contrasted with native languages: Introductory
numerical: Other uses of mekso
on embedded bridi: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
order of direction
distance and interval in: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
order of direction specification in: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
order of distance specification in: Spatial tenses: FAhA and VA
order of movement specification in: Movement in space: MOhI
order of spatial interval modifiers in: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
order of temporal and spatial in: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
overriding to speaker's current: Tenses in subordinate bridi
point contrasted with interval: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
position in sentence alternative: Introductory
position of in sentence: Introductory
quantified: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
rationale for relative order of temporal and spatial in: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
relation of point specified by direction and distance to interval: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
relative order with bridi negation: Tenses and bridi negation
scalar negation contrasted with contradictory negation of: Tense negation
scalar negation of with NAhE: Tense negation
scope effect of new paragraph: Paragraphs: NIhO
scope of: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
selbri types applicable to: Introductory
space-time dimension for intervals: Dimensionality: VIhA
speaker's current: Tenses in subordinate bridi
specifying relation of interval to point specified by direction and distance: Interval sizes: VEhA and ZEhA
static contrasted with moving: Movement in space: MOhI
subscripting: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
sumtcita form contrasted with connected sentences: Tense relations between sentences
with "ku": Introductory
with both temporal and spatial: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
tense afterthought connection forms
selma'o allowed: Tense relations between sentences
tense and na
multiple: Tenses and bridi negation
tense as sumtcita
contrasted with tense inside sumti: Tenses as sumtcita
tense cmavo
position relative to selbri: Tenses and bridi negation
tense connected sentences
contrasted with separately tensed sentences: Tense relations between sentences
forethought mode: Tense relations between sentences
importance of bo in: Tense relations between sentences
tense connection
equivalent meanings: Tense relations between sentences
expansions of: Tense relations between sentences
tense connection of bridi-tails
meaning of: Tense relations between sentences
tense connection of sentences
contrasted with sumtcita form: Tense relations between sentences
order of: Tense relations between sentences
tense connection of sumti
meaning of: Tense relations between sentences
tense conversion
accessing original first place with "fai": Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
accessing tense of bridi with "jai": Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
of temporal tenses: Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
use in sumti descriptions: Conversion of sumtcita: JAI
with "jai": Conversion of simple selbri
tense direction
as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
contrasted with event contours in implication of extent: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
implications on scope of event: Vague intervals and non-specific tenses
tense direction/distance as sumtcita
contrasted with event contours: Tenses as sumtcita
tense distance
as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
tense forethought connection forms
selma'o allowed: Tense relations between sentences
tense in scope of sticky tense
compared with compound tense: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
tense inside sumti
contrasted with tense as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
tense on main bridi
effect on embedded bridi tenses: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
effect on embedded sumti with tenses: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
tense questions
by using logical connective question: Tense questions: cu'e
methods of asking: Tense questions: cu'e
tense questions with "ma": Tense questions: cu'e
tense sentence connection
table of equivalent schemata: Tenses versus modals
tense specification
effect on "cu": Introductory
effect on elidability of terminators: Introductory
tense system
and space location: Introductory, Introductory
tense tags and sumtcita: Linked sumti: be - bei - be'o
tense with sumtcita
asymmetry of: Tense relations between sentences
tense-or-modal questions
pre-specifying some information: Tense questions: cu'e
with "cu'e": Tense questions: cu'e
tensed connectives
in mathematical expressions: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
tensed logical connection: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
tensed logical connectives: Tensed logical connectives
forethought: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in ek…"bo": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in ek…"ke": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in gihek…"bo": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in gihek…"ke": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in ijek…"bo": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in ijek…"tu'e": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in ijoik…"bo": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in ijoik…"tu'e": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in jek…"bo": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in joik…"bo": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
in joik…"ke": Tenses, modals, and logical connection
with "ke"…"ke'e": Tensed logical connectives
with "tu'e"…"tu'u": Tensed logical connectives
tensed logically connected bridi-tails: Tensed logical connectives
with grouping: Tensed logical connectives
tensed logically connected sentences: Tensed logical connectives
with grouping: Tensed logical connectives
tensed logically connected sumti: Tensed logical connectives
with grouping: Tensed logical connectives
tensed non-logical connectives: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
forethought: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
tenseless sentences in story time: Story time
tenses
compared with modals in syntax: Tenses versus modals
connected
with negation: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
contradictory negation of with "nai": Tense negation
contrasted with modals in semantics: Tenses versus modals
forethought connection in: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
forethought logical connections: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
grouping of connectives in: Tenses, modals, and logical connection
importance of 2nd sumti place for sumtcita use: Tenses versus modals
logically connected with JA: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
multiple in sentence: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
multiple in sentence compared with compound tense: Sticky and multiple tenses: KI
negating: Tense negation
non-logical connection of: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
non-logical connection of for sub-events: Sub-events
possible groupings of: Logical and non-logical connections between tenses
quick-tour version: Tenses
use as sumtcita: Tenses as sumtcita
viewpoint of PU contrasted with viewpoint of ZAhO: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u
tenses with elided CAhA
meaning: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
term
definition: Termset logical connection
terminators
eliding "ku" in non-logical connections: Non-logical connectives
termset
effect on scope of multiple indefinite sumti: Grouping of quantifiers
formation: Termset logical connection
termset logical connection
unequal length: Termset logical connection
termset modal connection: Other modal connections
termsets
compared to fa'u: Non-logical connectives
non-logical connection of: More about non-logical connectives
tertau
definition: Inversion of tanru: co
definition of: Simple tanru
effect on meaning of tanru: Simple tanru
text
division numbering with "mai": Other uses of mekso
sub-division numbering with "mai": Other uses of mekso
text quotation
as internally grammatical: Quotation summary
syntax of: Quotation summary
thank you
example: Vocative scales
the
contrasted with English "a/an": Miscellaneous indicators
for talking about numbers themselves: Simple infix expressions and equations
The men are women: The three basic description types
the two of you: sumti-based descriptions, sumti-based descriptions
there is a Y
expression "there is a Y" in English
notation convention: Negation boundaries
thingy: Assignable pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the ko'a-series and the broda-series
this
adjective expression with "ti noi": Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
adjective expression with "vi": Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
adjective usage contrasted with pronoun usage: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
as utterance reference in English: Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
pronoun expression with ti: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
pronoun usage contrasted with adjective usage: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
this boat: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series, Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
this book
author of: Acknowledgements and credits
contributors to: Acknowledgements and credits
credits for: Acknowledgements and credits
examples of: What are the typographical conventions of this book?
goal of: What is this book?
reviewers of: Acknowledgements and credits
structure of: What is this book?
this/that in English
compared with ti-series pro-sumti: Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
three bears: sumti-based descriptions, sumti-based descriptions, sumti-based descriptions
three cats white
and two big: A few notes on variables
three dogs bite two men: Grouping of quantifiers
Three Kings: selbri based on sumti: me
three of four people: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
three or four people: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
three rats: Special mekso selbri
thus
example: Evidentials
tilde
a diacritical mark: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
time
as part of tense system (see also tense
temporal tense): Introductory
as space-based metaphor: Space interval modifiers: FEhE
contrasted with space in number of directions: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
time tenses
quick-tour version: Tenses
time travel: Movement in space: MOhI
times
explicit expression of: Indefinite numbers
implicit expression of: Indefinite numbers
title
specifying with "tu'e…tu'u": Sentences: I
title of book: sumti qualifiers, sumti qualifiers
to the market from the office: Termset logical connection
to-do list: More about non-logical connectives
Tolkien
and non-standard Lojban orthography: Oddball orthographies
tomorrow: lujvo with more than two parts.
too
example: Discursives
too long: Event contours: ZAhO and re'u, Tenses as sumtcita
too many rats
example: Special mekso selbri
topic-comment
description: Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
topic/comment
multiple sentence: Topic-comment sentences: ZOhU
tosmabru test: The lujvo-making algorithm
toward her right: Movement in space: MOhI
toward my right: Movement in space: MOhI
toward right
contrasted with on right: Movement in space: MOhI
transfinite cardinal: Special numbers
transformations with logical connectives
steps: Logical connectives and DeMorgan's law
traveling salesperson: Modal tags: BAI
triumph: Types of event abstractions
truncation of number
expressing: Approximation and inexact numbers
truth
in imperative sentences: Truth questions and connective questions
truth functions: Logical connection and truth tables
16 possible: Logical connection and truth tables
commutative: The four basic vowels
creating all 16 with Lojban's basic set: The four basic vowels
fundamental 4 in Lojban: The four basic vowels
relation to logical connectives: The four basic vowels
table of logical connectives: Truth functions and corresponding logical connectives
truth questions: Miscellaneous indicators
answering in English with "no": Truth questions and connective questions
answering in English with "yes": Truth questions and connective questions
as yes-or-no questions: Truth questions and connective questions
contrasted with connection questions: Truth questions and connective questions
simple: Truth questions and connective questions
truth table
explanation: Logical connection and truth tables
truth tables
abbreviated format: Logical connection and truth tables
for 4 fundamental Lojban truth functions: The four basic vowels
list of 16 in abbreviated form: Logical connection and truth tables
notation convention: Logical connection and truth tables
truth-value abstractions
place structure: Truth-value abstraction: jei, Predication/sentence abstraction
try the door: Lojban sumti raising
try to go: Inversion of tanru: co
ts-sound in Russian
representation in Lojban: Basic phonetics
twice today: Tenses as sumtcita
two brothers: Other kinds of simple selbri
two dogs are white: Quantified descriptions
types and subtypes of words: brivla
typical
compared with stereotypical: Descriptors for typical objects
typical Englishman: Descriptors for typical objects
typical Lojban user: Masses and sets
typical objects
and instantiation: Descriptors for typical objects
determining characteristics of: Descriptors for typical objects
typical Smith
example: Descriptors for typical objects
typical sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series
typical value
contrasted with elliptical value for sumti: Indefinite pro-sumti and pro-bridi: the zo'e-series and the co'e-series

U

U
notation convention for logical connectives: The four basic vowels
ugh: More about non-logical connectives
umlaut
a diacritical mark: Accent marks and compound lerfu words
unabridged dictionary: Contrastive emphasis: BAhE
unconditional signal: No more to say: FAhO
unconnected tanru
contrasted with logically connected version: Logical connection within tanru
undemonstrated potential
expressing: Actuality, potentiality, capability: CAhA
under compulsion: Modal selbri, Modal selbri, Modal selbri, Modal selbri
under conditions: Event abstraction
underscore notation for Quick Tour chapter: The concept of the bridi
unequal termset connection
compared with compound bridi connection with unequal separate bridi-tails: Termset logical connection
unfilled places of inverted tanru: Inversion of tanru: co
Unicode: Computerized character codes
union
of sets: More about non-logical connectives
union of sets
compared with English "or": More about non-logical connectives
units of measurement
expressing: Simple infix expressions and equations
universal
mixed claim with existential: Universal claims
universal claims
dangers of using: Dropping the prenex
explanation: Universal claims
restricting: Restricted claims: da poi, Restricted claims: da poi
unqualified sumti
contrasted with qualified sumti: sumti qualifiers
unreduced fractions
use in granular scales: Special mekso selbri
unreduced lujvo
definition: rafsi
unspecified breed
example: Dependent places
unspecified direction
temporal contrasted with in spatial: Temporal tenses: PU and ZI
unspecified emotion: Compound indicators
unspecified level of emotion: Compound indicators
unspecified route: Standard bridi form: cu
unspecified sumti
non-trailing: Standard bridi form: cu
using zo'e as place-holder for: Standard bridi form: cu
unspecified trailing sumti
dropping: Standard bridi form: cu
unstated emotion: Compound indicators
unusual characters
words for: The universal bu
unvoiced consonants
contrasted with voiced in allowable consonant pairs: Initial consonant pairs
unvoiced vowel glide
apostrophe as: The special Lojban characters
upper-case
lerfu word for: Upper and lower cases
upper-case letters
English usage contrasted with Lojban: Upper and lower cases
Lojban usage contrasted with English: Upper and lower cases
utterance
expressing relation to discourse: Discursives
utterance ordinal
lerfu string as: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings
utterance pro-sumti: Utterance pro-sumti: the di'u-series
stability of: Pro-sumti and pro-bridi cancelling
utterances
non-bridi: Questions and answers
uy diphthong
in cmevla: cmevla

V

V
as a symbol for a single vowel: Introductory
vague abstraction: Minor abstraction types
vague abstractions
place structure: Minor abstraction types
vague abstractor: Minor abstraction types
vague relationship
modal tag for: Modal tags: BAI
valid speech
marking as error with jo'a: Miscellaneous indicators
variables
logical: Existential claims, prenexes, and variables
vector
components of: Vectors and matrices
definition: Vectors and matrices
vector indicator: Vectors and matrices
terminator for: Vectors and matrices
vectors
use as operands: Vectors and matrices
use of parentheses with: Vectors and matrices
veljvo
symmetrical: Symmetrical and asymmetrical lujvo
verbs
brivla as Lojban equivalents: brivla
very: Special mekso selbri
veterinarian: Ordering lujvo places.
vice versa: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series, Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
English
expressing with vo'a-series pro-sumti and soi: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
virtue
example: Attitudinal modifiers
vocative phrase
effect of position on meaning: The syntax of vocative phrases
elidable terminator for: The syntax of vocative phrases
explicit quantifiers prohibited on: The syntax of vocative phrases
forms of: The syntax of vocative phrases
implicit descriptor on: The syntax of vocative phrases
implicit quantifiers on: The syntax of vocative phrases
purpose of: The syntax of vocative phrases
with complete sumti: The syntax of vocative phrases
with sumti without descriptor: The syntax of vocative phrases
vocative phrase terminator
elidability of: The syntax of vocative phrases
vocative phrase with name
placement of relative clause on: Relative clauses in vocative phrases
vocative phrase with selbri
placement of relative clause on: Relative clauses in vocative phrases
vocative phrases
as a free modifier : The syntax of vocative phrases
relative clauses on: Relative clauses in vocative phrases
vocative word
phrase following: The syntax of vocative phrases
vocatives
and definition of English "you": Vocative scales
contrasted with "la": Vocative scales
definition: Vocative scales
grammar overview: Vocative scales
notation convention symbol "X": Vocative scales
quick-tour version: Vocatives and commands
rationale for redundancy: Vocative scales
voiced consonants
contrasted with unvoiced in allowable consonant pairs: Initial consonant pairs
voiced/unvoiced consonants
restrictions on: Consonant clusters
vowel
buffer: Buffering of consonant clusters
vowel buffer
contrasted with y sound: Buffering of consonant clusters
vowel pairs
contrasted with diphthongs: Vowel pairs
definition of: Vowel pairs
grouping of: Vowel pairs
involving y: Vowel pairs
list of: Vowel pairs
use of apostrophe in: Vowel pairs
vowel-initial words
necessity for pause before: Rules for inserting pauses
vowels
contrasted with consonants: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
definition of: Diphthongs and syllabic consonants
length of: Buffering of consonant clusters
pronunciation of
quick-tour version: Pronunciation
VV string
as a symbol for a double vowel: Introductory

W

walk to market: Conversion of simple selbri
want to be a soldier: The syntax of abstraction
wash self: Reflexive and reciprocal pro-sumti: the vo'a-series
weapon against self: Dropping the prenex
went and bought: Tenses, modals, and logical connection, Tenses, modals, and logical connection
what is your name: sumti and bridi questions: ma and mo
when: Tense questions: cu'e
when else: Tense questions: cu'e
when/where/how: Tense questions: cu'e
where: Tense questions: cu'e
whether criminal: Truth-value abstraction: jei
whole time interval
expressing: Interval properties: TAhE and roi
window: The six types of logical connectives
wine-dark sea: The meaning of tanru: a necessary detour
word classes: Introductory
word forms
as related to grammatical uses: Introductory
in Lojban (see also morphology): Introductory
word quotation
as morphologically valid: Quotation summary
internal grammar of: Quotation summary
words not in the dictionary: Some words used to indicate selbri relations
wrong concept: Dependent places

X

X-ray: rafsi
x1
in place structure notation: Introductory
notation convention
quick-tour version: Some words used to indicate selbri relations
x₃: Subscripts
xₐ,ₑ: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
xₖ: Mathematical uses of lerfu strings

Y

y
considered not to be a vowel for morphological discussions: Introductory
letter
between letters of consonant pair: brivla
prohibition from fu'ivla: fu'ivla
use in avoiding forbidden consonant pairs: Consonant clusters
y sound
contrasted with vowel buffer: Buffering of consonant clusters
y-hyphen
and consonant cluster determination: lujvo
and stress determination: lujvo
use of: lujvo
yes/no questions: Miscellaneous indicators
quick-tour version: Questions
yielding the floor: No more to say: FAhO
yon
as archaic English equivalent of "tu": Demonstrative pro-sumti: the ti-series
you
defining: Vocative scales
you're welcome
"fi'i" contrasted with "je'e": Vocative scales
"je'e" contrasted with "fi'i": Vocative scales
you-cmavo
example: lujvo based on pro-sumti
you-talk
example: lujvo based on pro-sumti
younger: Comparatives and superlatives, Comparatives and superlatives

Z

z
"z" instead of "'" in acronyms names based on lerfu words: Acronyms
zbalermorna
non-standard Lojban orthography: Oddball orthographies
zero
relation to negation boundary: Negation boundaries
zero to one: Logical and non-logical connectives within mekso
Zipf's Law: Considerations for making lujvo